Medieval Art

Medieval art within the western world expanded over a wide horizon of both time and place, covering about 1000 years, causing it to have a significant impact on the art within Europe. It was comprised of several major art movements, wherein important styles of art and artists emerged. Some of these styles of artwork include early Christian art, Byzantine art, and Romanesque art, each of which contained major artists who made a name for themselves that has remained famous throughout the centuries.

Early Christian art, more commonly referred to as Latin Antique Art, was prominent from about 200 to about 500, but is frequently associated within the 4th century when Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. "With this came the acceptance of the artistic style known as iconography, which explores the identification and portrayal of the content of images."(Stokstad 231) The literal translation of the word is “image writing”; with a more common meaning expressing that it was the painting of icons that reflected upon the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian traditions. The surviving record of this style of art is most commonly found in the tomb painting at the catacombs of Rome and it was after this that there were several mosaics that were done in churches that were built under the imperial patronage. The Early Christian art had formed techniques of artistic style from which Northern Europe would draw from to create the definition of the Roman style.


A second style of art that was particularly popular during the medieval period was Byzantine art, which emerged after the division that occurred within the Roman Empire. "It emerged around the year 500, and expressed that it was a very conservative style of artwork as it was done according to the tradition of Greek realism."(Sekules 128) As a result, monumental structures were a prominent method of expressing art throughout the Byzantine Empire. In addition to this, many of the artwork that was produced of the finest quality was created by the Byzantines, as the central city of production was Constantinople. Above all, the Byzantines crowing accomplishment within art were the monumental mosaics and frescos, which were located on the domes of churches. However most of these were destroyed due to natural disasters that occurred.

A third popular method of approaching art was known as the Romanesque period, which lasted from 1000 to the start of Gothic art in the twelfth century. It originally developed as a result of monasticism in Western Europe, having its start in France. It eventually spread to Christian England, Spain, Germany, Italy, and Flanders, becoming the first medieval style to be widely spread throughout Europe. It was mainly expressed through figurative sculptures that were colorfully painted, which provided an important component to large churches. They were commonly placed in the capitals of the columns that surrounded the magnificent churches, as well as around remarkable portals, that were centered above doors. They best representation of these are found at the Vezelay Abbey and the Autun Cathedral, which express how important this style of art was in creating these buildings.

In conclusion, the various types of art that was prominent during the medieval period not only had an impact when first emerging, but a lasting impression that would have a very influential impact in the centuries to follow. Even up to our modern day society we are still recreating the various artistic styles that first originated from early Christian, Byzantine, and Roman ideas that were displayed in magnificent ways. It was an outstanding depiction of detailed craftsmanship that was truly inspiring for several artists that would emerge in future generations.

Sekules, Veronica. Medival Art. Oxford University Press: New York, 2001.

Stokstad, Marilyn. Medival Art: Second Edition. Westview Press: United States, 2004.

The Fifth Crusade and Beyond

In addition to the first four crusades, there were also five others that followed, causing there to be nine gruesome attempts of fighting against one main cause; the infidel group of the Muslims. Considering this, the crusades were all a series of religiously-focused military expeditions that were started by the Latin’s in Christian Europe, focusing on the Franks and the Holy Roman Empire. The crusaders were longing for control over the beloved Holy Land, and fought for this for over two hundred years between 1095 and 1291. These battles were waged primarily against the Muslims, but also included other groups of people such as Greek Orthodox Christians, Slavs, Mongols, and Jews. It was the determined crusaders who sought penance for their past sins that made the crusades both possible, and a milestone in history that had many significant impacts.


It was after the fourth crusade that the fighting continued , causing a fifth crusade to emerge as a result of the Church pushing to further the fighting. The church played a major part in this because they carried out processions and ceremonies of prayer in order to urge for another confrontation with the infidel. It was the Fourth Council of the Lateran who devised a plan for the recapturing of the Holy Land, which consisted of three phases. In the first phase, a crusading group from Hungary and Austria combined with the men who were under both the King of Jerusalem and the prince of Antioch. Within the second phase, the crusaders achieved an amazing accomplishment when they captured Damietta in Egypt in 1219, with the aid of the Pelagius, the papal legate. “They then launched a foolhardy attack on Cairo in July of 1221. The crusaders were turned back after the dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat.” (Nicholson 94) It was an attack performed during the night by the ruler of Egypt who was the sultan Al-Kamil, which had devastating consequences with many crusaders dying. This is what initiated the eight year peace agreement with Europe.


The sixth crusade was one that was vowed to be initiated by Emperor Fredrick II, who commonly failed to live up to his word and promises. This resulted in him later being excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX in 1228. This caused him to sail from Brindisi to Palestine where he experienced success when he took over Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem through diplomacy and this was vital as it provided deliverance to the crusaders for about ten years. In addition to this, Frederick II had failed to conquer Egypt in 1229, and instead formed a peace treaty with Al-Kamil who was the ruler of Egypt. It was this particular treaty that allowed the Christians to have control over a majority of Jerusalem, while the Muslims had management over the Dome of the Rock, located at the Al-Aksa mosque. This treaty was very successful in retaining peace, but several of the Muslims were not content with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem, which later caused a siege wherein the Muslims gained control over the scared city once again.


Matters of the seventh crusade were brought about by the papal interests that were expressed by the Templars, who brought conflict into Egypt in 1243. It was the following year that a Khwarezmian force who was called out to serve, abruptly invaded Jerusalem. This caused the crusaders to be involved in a battle that was at La Forbie in Gaza. “The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were completely defeated within forty eight hours by Baibar’s force of Khwarezmian tribesmen. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the Kingdom of Outremer.” (Riley-Smith 203) Although this did not cause a wide range of anger in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem had produced, Louis XI of France put together a crusade that was against Egypt and lasted from 1248 to 1254, which caused the port of Aigues-Mortes to be constructed in southern France. However it turned out to be a failure, and as a result Louis XI ended up spending a majority of the crusade dwelling in the court of the crusader kingdom located in Acre. This particular crusade was the first Shepherd’s crusade of 1251.


Branching out of the seventh crusade the eighth crusade was planned by Louis XI in 1270 and began when he sailed from Aigues-Mortes in order to help what was left of the crusader states in Syria. Louis was troubled by the events that were happening in Syria, as the Baibars and Mamluks were brutally attacking the remainder of the crucial crusader states. The Baibars immediately took advantage of the opportunity to strike the cites of Venice and Genoa in order to turn them against each other, causing chaos. This had an impact on the Syrian ports located within the two cities as they were weakening. It was for this reason that Louis decided to call another crusade in the first place. This crusade ended up being centralized in the city of Tunis where Louis XI only spent two short months before passing away. Louis was later honored for his hard work and efforts concerning his involvement in the various crusades.


It was the ninth and final crusade that Edward I of England decided to take over yet another attack against the Baibars in 1271 after aiding Louis XI in the eighth crusade. It was this last crusade that was pronounced a failure and ended the crusades within the Middle East. In the later years they faced several threats from Egyptian Mamluks which created a longing to create a Franco-Mongol alliance. The Mongols were considered to show sensitivity towards Christianity, but the Frankish people came to be the most successful in offering help and planned several of the invasions that were carried out within the Middle East. In the end, the cities of Tripoli, Antioch, and Acre fell causing numerous Christians not to be able to break free from these locations. The unfortunate ones who did not manage to escape were either enslaved or murdered, and the history of the Christian rule in the Levant vanished.

The crusading movement came to an end at the end of the thirteenth century, and can be accounted as a failure based upon what they were trying to accomplish. It was after nearly two hundred years of conflict that control of the Holy Land still remained in the hands of the Muslims, but this does not mean that the crusades did not help in some areas. An example of this would be during the first crusade where the crusaders managed to conquer Syria in order to track the Turks and their journey to Constantinople. However despite this benefit, the crusades managed to do more harm than good in achieving their goal, and decided to stop the fighting, causing the crusades come to an end as the consequence. Their ultimate conclusion was that Jerusalem could be best taken over through the way the apostle Paul had done it “by love, by prayers, and by the shedding of tears.”

Nicholson, Helen J. The Crusades. Greenwood Press: United States, 2004.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A History. British Library Publishers: New York, 2005.

The Fourth Crusade

The fourth crusade lasted from 1202 through 1204, with the original intent being to overcome the Muslims who had power over Jerusalem. The crusaders were attentively planning to accomplish this through attacking them throughout Egypt. However, they chose to fight according to a different plan, deciding to invade within Western Europe, with the primary focus being on the city of Constantinople, which was the Byzantine Empire’s capital city. This includes various sieges on the city, leading up to the final capture of the major town itself. It is this that provides the primary focal point of the fourth crusade, and one of the concluding acts in the Great Schism that was between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

It was after the disappointment that the third crusade had that caused the concern for having another crusade in Europe had diminished, as they did not want to carry on another fight against the Muslims. It was during this time that Jerusalem was under the influence of the Ayyubid dynasty of Sunni Muslims, who had control over both Egypt and Syria. With knowledge of this, the majority of the crusaders departed from Venice in October of 1202, all of whom had their origins from various European cities. “Other notable groups came from the Holy Roman Empire, including men under Bishop Martin of Paris and Bishop Conrad of Halberstadt, together in alliance with the Venetian soldiers and sailors led by the doge Enrico Dandolo.”(Queller 193)The purpose of the crusade was to aim directly for the center of the Muslim world, Cairo. The crusaders were now ready to sail on June 24, 1202.

The Latin’s that were involved in the First, Second, and Third Crusade had gone from stresses to completely antagonistic in Constantinople on their journey to the Holy Land. This was opposite to how the Greeks approached the situation as their armies had deserted the Crusaders in some instances and participated in a diplomacy with their enemies. Many of Venetian merchants and other Latins were also attacked during the massacre of the Latins in Constantinople in 1182, which involved the method of deportation to be utilized. “However, the Byzantine prince's proposal involved his restoration to the throne, which Count Boniface agreed to. Alexius IV returned with the Marquess to rejoin the fleet at Corfu after it had sailed from Zara. The rest of the Crusade's leaders eventually accepted the plan as reliable.” (Phillips 204) There were several leaders of this same rank who did not want to take part in this proposal and many disregarded the idea.

It was on April 12, 1204, the weather conditions were finally in support of the Crusaders. A powerful wind that came from the north aided the Venetian ships neat the wall, and a short battle took place to seige Constantinople. It was after this fight that about seventy crusaders succeeded in making their way into the city. Many of them chose to make holes in the walls, which were helpful in causing a small number of knights to make their way through. Another thing that the Venetians were victorious in doing was traveling from the sea, and climbing up the nearby walls, even though they encountered very bloody fighting with the Varangians. It was after a long period of hard fighting that the crusaders finally captured the Blachernae section of the city, which was located in the northwest. They had a relatively easy time taking over the rest of the city, as after they overcame this milestone, a strong and successful foundation had been established for conquering. Despite causing extensive damage from defensive fires that they started in order to defend themselves, they managed to take over the city of Constantinople on this faithful day.

In conclusion, a majority of the crusaders never completed their journey to the Holy Land, causing them to leave a legacy of a profound betrayal by the Latin’s. The Latin Empire also faced many problems after this crusade which included having problems with both the Seljuk and Bulgarian Empires. This also sparked the Greek and Latin states fighting against each other, which incorporated many major officials such as Alexius III to be captured and even executed. It was because of this that there were many attempts to start other crusades that did not ultimately end up happening. However, the conflict did not end here, as the aggression and tension continued, eventually leading to the fifth crusade and beyond.

Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. Random House Publishers: United States, 2005.

Queller, Thomas F. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. University of Pennsylvania Press: United States, 1997.

The Third Crusade

The third crusade, which lasted from 1189 through 1192, more formally known as
the King’s Crusade, was an effort made by the European chief officials to
triumph over the Holy Land once again from Saladin. It was this expedition that
consisted of the unifying of the Muslims, defeats made by Saladin, and the
collapse of Jerusalem. It was through these things that organization was
displayed as the third crusade began to unfold.

It was after the practical failure of the second crusade, that Nur al Din, who
was part of the Turkish Zengid dynasty, who ruled over the empire known as the
Syrian province. In addition to him having power over this area, he also had
power over Damascus. In order to provide unification for the Muslims, he focused
on the Fatmid dynasty who were from Egypt. He decided to call upon his most
trusted commander, Shiruk to carry out a military journey to the Nile, with his
nephew Saladin. At the beginning of this endeavor, the soldiers came to Cairo,
were they camped while they requested assistance from the king of Jerusalem. As
a result, they received help from an army sent to them through the king
granting their appeal.

The first major attack with this newly formed army was on Antioch, which caused
the execution of many Christian forces, and the taking over of several Crusaders
leaders. The primary one who was captured was the prince of Antioch himself-
Bohemond II. It was after this gruesome event that Nur al Din decided to send
the scalps of the Christians he had taken back to Egypt so that they might be
displayed in honor and pride for the actions that he had committed, claiming
himself as victorious, as he now had control over all of Egypt and Syria.

In addition to Nur al Din’s successes, Saladin had several as well. "His uncle,
Shirkuh had now taken the position of vizier of Egypt, but after only two weeks
of ruling, he died suddenly in 1169, leaving his position to his nephew Saladin."(Reston 89)
In addition to his uncle dying, Nur al Din also passed away in 1174, leaving his
own kingdom to his son As-Salih, who was only eleven years old. It was As-Salih
who made the decision that Saladin was the only man who was wise enough to imply
the concept of jihad against the many crusaders. He experienced many successes,
which included becoming sultan of both Syria and Egypt, in addition to being the
initiator of the Ayyubid Empire.

After the success experienced, the fall of Jerusalem was quick to proceed,
wherein it was Saladin’s chance to stand up against this very kingdom that he
was opposed to. The fight consisted of uniting the Muslims and meeting the
Christians at a lake close to Galilee. “It ended in the route of their army and
the capture of their king. Even the Holy Cross, which they had carried in the
midst of the fight, became spoil of the conqueror.”(Crompton 57) The Crusader army was
crushed during the battle, but at the end of that very year, Saladin had taken
both Acre and Jerusalem which was the reason for the city’s collapse, the main focal point and ultimately the end of the third crusade.

Crompton, Samuel W. The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted vs. Saladin. Chelsea House Publishers: United States, 2004.

Reston, James. Warriors of God: Ruchard the Lionhearted and Saladin in the Third Crusade. Random House Publishers: United States, 2001.

The Second Crusade

The second crusade was yet another crucial crusade which was initiated from
Europe, and lasted from 1147 to 1149. It was officially announced by Pope Eugene
II, and was the very first crusade to be led by kings such as Louis VII of
France and Conrad II from Germany. Also, this embarkment was originally arranged
in 1145, in reply to the fall of the County of Edessa during the previous year
from a people group known as the Zengi, which was the very cause of this
particular crusade. It was this county of Edessa that had been previously discovered
during the first crusade and in addition, there were many important factors to the
second crusade which included the major battle between the Germans and French,
the journey to Jerusalem, and the siege of Damascus.

The course chosen by the Germans to take under Conrad II was that they would
confront the French at Constantinople. However, upon the Germans arrival, Conrad
II encounter his enemy Geza II of Hungary, but he permitted them to make their
way through without penalty. "While Conrad the II’s confidence had been shaken, it
was soon reinforced when 20,000 more German soldiers arrived, strengthening the
forces."(Phillips 87) They had finally arrived at Constantinople on September 10, where the
correspondence between them and the French became a conflict, and caused the
Germans to take an alternate route to Asia Minor. While they avoided the French,
they ended up fighting the Turks Iconium at the battle of Dorylaeum. The Germans
ended up losing, and even Conrad II himself was wounded.

A key site that was involved in the second crusade was a significant journey to Jerusalem. This involved Louis VII, who arrived in Antioch on March 19. He was
expecting several important officials to help in defending them against the
Turks, and to also join them in the quest of fighting against the major Muslim
city of Aleppo. This location was very crucial because it was the entryway to
Edessa, however Louis VII’s response was that he would not partake in the
combat, as he wanted to continue his voyage to Jerusalem, due to the fact that his was because he wanted his primary concentration to be on the military facets of this crusade. It was after he made this decision that he found out that Conrad’s troops, in addition to several others had already arrived in Jerusalem, and requested that he joing them. He arrived with his troops, when suddenly King Baldwin II decided that he wanted the leaders and their troops to switch their focus and express a siege towards Damascus.

Upon their arrival in Damascus, the troops decided to strike from the west
where there were many orchards to provide nourishment for the soldiers. They
made their way to the location within Damascus known as Daraiya on July 23. It
was the next day that the Muslims were prepared to fight against them and attack
through the orchards that provided subtle coverings. "They managed to push
Conrad’s troops back from the walls were they currently were, and into the
orchards, were they were susceptible to ambush."(Nicolle 54) It was after this that they readily
moved to the eastern part of the city, which was very protected . The nearby
crusader lords had refused to carry on this battle, and made the decision to
retreat to Jerusalem on July 28, as Turkish archers were continually harassing
them.

In the end, the Second Crusade had both good and bad consequences that
resulted. Within the east, the outcome was very bleak as the Christians were
left devastated. The Second Crusade also had grim effects on the Holy Land, as
Damascus was no longer the foundational center of the reliable crusader kingdom.
In contrast, Jerusalem was able to make successful battles against Egypt that
caused them to dominate Cairo in the 1160’s, and this was made possible through a
strong alliance with the Byzantines under their main leader King Amalric I.
However, this success did not last very long as the majority of these expeditions
ended in failure. The main implication of this was that this alliance official
came to an end when Manuel I emperor of the Byzantines died in 1180, thus
resulting in Jerusalem being taken over by Saladin, which is the primary focus of
the approaching Third Crusade.

Nicolle, David. The Second Crusade 1148: Disaster Outside Damascus. New York: Osprey Publishing, 2009.

Phillips, Jonathan. The Second Crusade: Scope and Consequences. NewYork: Manchester University Press, 2001.

The First Crusade

The First Crusade was a military journey made by the Europeans in order to recapture the Holy Lands, that had previously been taken over by the Muslim conquest Levant. It was this that later resulted in the capture of Jerusalem in 1099. Pope Urban II was the one who first launched this crusade in 1095, with hopes of achieving a goal that responded to the demand from Byzantine Emperor, and more specifically Alexius I. It was this emperor who carried out this plan by requesting that western assistants offer help and to drive back the invading Seljuk Turks from Anatolia, which is modern day Turkey. It was an additional goal that soon became the main purpose; to reconquer the revered city of Jerusalem, known as the Holy Land, in addition to releasing the Eastern Christians from Islamic rule.

The purpose of trying to regain this land back, which was fueled from the Christians belief that the Muslims should be taken out of the city. There were others in addition to the Christians that believed their purpose for going was to gain forgiveness from God for the sins they had previously committed, as they had been told by the pope that if they died while fighting in battle, they would immediately go to heaven, as they were fighting for His glory. In addition to these people, there were additional individuals who thought that they would get rich by taking valuables while fighting in the city of Jerusalem.

Now that an army of warriors has been established, they were prepared to make their way to the Holy Land, however this was not an easy journey to the Middle East. They were not able to utilize the Mediterranean Sea, as the Crusaders had no control over its ports, so they took an alternative land route. This consisted of travelling from France, through Italy and Eastern Europe. “They covered hundreds of miles through scorching heat and also deep snow in mountain passes. The Crusaders ran out of fresh water and according to a survivor of the First Crusade wrote about his experiences after his return, some were reduced to drinking their own urine, drinking animal blood or water that has been in sewage.” (Asbridge 224 ) It was the experiences like this that provided a reason for why disease was common through this crusade, as many of the men were weakened through drinking contaminated substances. Heat stroke also weakened many of the crusaders, in addition to both the rich and poor alike.

It was by the year 1097 nearly 10,000 people had gathered together and made the journey on the First Crusade. It was Urban II who made Bishop Adbenar the leader, as he preferred him to make the crucial decisions and lead the forces. The first major city attacked was Nicea, and was easily taken over by the forces. The next target was Antioch, which was an extremely well- guarded Turkish city. This was a more difficult city to overthrow, as it took the crusaders seven months of fighting in order to overthrow the city. It wasn’t until 1099 that both the attack and capture of Jerusalem took place. They managed to get over the city’s high walls, causing the Muslim defenders to flee. The crusaders were extremely aggressive and determined, taken down anyone who dared to get in their way. “The streets of Jerusalem were ankle deep in blood. The slaughter continued, and the Crusaders killed whoever they wished.” (Phillips 72 ) The Muslims who survived were left only to travel around the city, collecting the dead bodies in order for them to be removed. It was after this grusome attack that the Muslims claimed that 70,000 people had been killed.

After the success that the Crusaders experienced, there were many other contributing factors that defined the first crusade. It succeeded in creating the “crusader states” that consisted of Edessa, Jerusalem, Antioch, Tripoli, and Syria. Within western Europe, those who survived the many battles were considered war heroes, and their efforts were greatly praised. Although they experienced mishaps, they regained territory and united their neighboring lands, which caused them to have a period of peace and opulence.

Asbridge, Thomas. The First Crusade: A New History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Phillips, Jonathan P. The First Crusade: Origins and Impact. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.

Both the life and death of Charlemagne had a significant impact on the entire history of Europe. His accomplishments which started with his powerful reign beginning in 768, launched the reign that would caused him to become a master of Western Europe, as well as his immense dedication to the church, in addition to his nation's people as a whole, would all be contributing factors to the success of his rule.

It was in the year 768 when Charlemagne’s brother Carolman inherited the Frankish Kingdom and in 771 Carolman would pass away, leaving Charlemagne to become the primary ruler of the empire. He would prove to be very determined to strengthen the nation over which he had control, in order to display organization through his strong Christian principles. One of the primary examples that demonstrated this was when he launched his several military campaigns, many of which he was the chief commander. “He moved his armies over a wide reaches of the country with unbelievable speed, but every move was planned in advance. Before a campaign, he told the counts, princes, and bishops throughout his realm how many man they should bring, what arms there were to carry, and even what to load in the supply wagons.”(Becher 82) It was this remarkable display of precise organization that influenced the many great rulers who came after him, including Napoleon.

By 800, Charlemagne had conquered much land that would become part of his vast empire. These areas included Switzerland, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, in addition to present day Italy, Germany, and parts of Austria. It was this magnificent display of greatness that caused the faithful day to arrive on December 25, 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor. The ceremony consisted of Charlemagne kneeling before Pope Leo III, as he placed a gold crown atop his head, as the church stated, “To Charles the August, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, long life and victory!” It was this coronation that developed the very foundation of the Roman Empire, as Charlemagne was considered the first Holy Roman Emperor.

Upon taking this position, Charlemagne had a very significant impact on both the Renaissance, in addition to overall reformation. He had profound sympathy towards poor peasants, and believed that it was the government’s job to help them. However, the government was oppressive and did not agree with him on this matter, so Charlemagne took a step and expanded the work of investigators in order to bring about reform in the government. These researchers were known as missi dominici, who administered justice in addition to the revitalization of letting citizens be aware of their religious and civil responsibilities. In addition to this, “Charlemagne was a tireless reformer who tried to improve his peoples’ lot in many ways. He set up money standards to encourage commerce, tried to build a Rhine-Danube Canal, and urged better farming methods.”(Collins 107) Perhaps the most important step taken to impact his empire was the spread of Christianity in order to educate every class of people.

It was after Charlemagne’s tremendous impact on his empire through many different ways that he would pass away at the age of seventy-two. Being a Christian emperor, the inscription on his tomb read, “Beneath this stone lies the body of Charles the Great, the Christian Emperor…throughout his life Charlemagne had worshipped God devoutly, supported the church, given to the needy.” This truly reflects the highlights of Charlemagne’s reign as the first Holy Roman Emperor and the many facets and aspects that led to his success. He was succeeded by his surviving son, Louis, whose empire lasted a generation, and it was his sons that carried on the rule, laying the groundwork for modern day France and Germany.

Becher, Matthias. Charlemagne. United States: Yale University Press, 2005.

Collins, Roger. Charlemagne. United States: University of Toronto Press, 1998.

Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism

The two religious groups of Orthodox Christians and the Roman Catholics have many similarities, as well as differences when looking back through the course of history concerning what doctrine they follow, who they believe God truly is, and how their contrasting churches are organized. All of these factors are crucial when contrasting the differences between the two institutions, in addition to how they have functioned previously in the past and how they operate currently.

When the Orthodox Church is mentioned, it is most commonly referring to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which is the second largest. When the development of the Orthodox Church is concerned, which dates back to both the Byzantine and Roman empires. This branch of the Orthodox Church was originally established by St. Paulin addition to the Apostles and its practices are comprised of the original ancient traditions, which believed in promoting development without causing modifications. Where the church was concerned, it occasionally adopted derisive influences from neighboring, Slavic, Greek, and Middle Eastern traditions, in order to form the cultural expansion of these institutions. Along with this practice came the various positions in which church leaders were authorized to hold and the importance of each rank was established wherein each bishop had different ranks such as patriarchs and archbishops, and were all viewed as being equal. The reasoning attributed to this was because the Orthodox Church frequently taught that every bishop is “the living icon of Christ” and is encouraged to spread the true faith and have an influence on the people they would likely encounter.

One of the primary goals of Orthodox Christians is to strive to become like God, or what they refer to as “little Christs” within Jesus, and this is a practice known as theosis, or deification. "They derive this from the Biblical text that they utilize from the Greek Septuagint and the New Testament. Deuterocanonical Books are comprised within this and are known as Anagignoskomena, coming from a Greek word which receives them as devout catechetical writings."(Brown 91) The Orthodox also believes that scripture was inspired by the Holy Spirit as to its authors who wrote them down, as well as having an influence among the speakers and editors. Orthodox Christians also utilize symbols as focal points when worshipping the saints as part of their daily routine. The Orthodox Church maintains and utilizes this symbolism in order to serve as a means of identifying a God-created person, which is what brings value to human beings and their lives.

In comparison, the Roman Catholics hold a different view when it comes to these various areas. Where their doctrine is concerned, this branch of Catholicism believes that while the idea of having faith in God should remain consistent, it also justifies the idea of a renewing doctrine also known as “doctrinal development.” At the heart of this idea was faith, as the foundation from which this religion is built starts from the premise that God gave us the original interjection of faith, symbolizing a seed that is intended to grow throughout the generations. It is then the work of the Holy Spirit to enlarge this movement, and truly amplify the religion to many people.

Roman Catholicism also differed where the concept of the church is concerned with the belief that instead of there being a bishop at the head of the church, a pope was placed in that position. “The Pope is then the Bishop of the Catholic church. He is the interpreter of the Catholic tradition. When he speaks for the whole church, he is therefore infallible on matters of moral doctrine. He is the symbol of episcopate’s unity.”(White 83) This presents the thought that the Catholic principles are derived from the Body of Christ with the visible head being the Pope.

As demonstrated, the comparison between the Orthodox Christians and the Roman Catholicism faiths both correspond with each other in some respects, in addition to having their differences. When it comes to them being dissimilar, it is within the area of which leader takes the responsibility of being head of the church between a bishop and a pope that displays a defining factoring element. However, they reach a common ground when they both find identity as their belief that God is the primary factor of both bringing and uniting human beings through him. Both religions lead to the conclusion that ultimate faith is found in Christ, through which we should conduct a purpose driven life.

White, Bender R. Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity: Chelsea House Publishers: United States, 2009.

Brown, Stephen F. Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity World Religions: Facts on File Publishers: United States, 2006.

Just War and Jihad: How they lead to the Crusades

The names of just war and jihad both had a significant influence in leading to the Crusades, which happened during the 11th through 12th centuries. It was through these two approaches to a peaceful war that would influence the way the Crusades operated. With the very word Crusade itself implies a brave struggle for a righteous cause. This is clearly presented and supported in history as the Crusaders sincerely believed that they were carrying out God's will, however when exploring the various aspects, many of them were characterized as being ignorant and forceful.

The Crusades were a sequence of military operations within the time period of Medieval England, wherein the European Christians were fighting against the Muslims of the Middle East and their objective was to conquer the Holy Lands that the Muslims had previously taken over. The concept of jihad that originated within the Islamic community directly related to the idea of starting these various battles because the word crusade itself means "a war of the cross." This was a perspective held by the Christians that stated that war could be carried out, as they saw it as a duty of carrying out religious causes. A clear resemblance surfaces in that the premise of jihad centers around the thought that war is thought of as right if done in the way of Allah.

In a further explanation of this view, most Muslim scholars who functioned according to this standard saw the world as if it were divided into two houses, the House of Peace (Dar Al-Salaam) and the House of War (Dar Al-Harb). "The lands controlled by Muslims belong to the House of Peace, while those who have not yet submitted to Islam belong to the House of War, until they are utterly subdued."(Caroll 165) The Qur'an explains this approach to non-Muslims very clearly, which is vital in how the Crusades occurred. As stated in section 8:39, "Make war on them until idolatry shall cease and God's religion shall reign supreme." It is according to this that we should give people only a few choices when fighting war in reverence to Allah; these being to convert to the religion, pay a tax, or die. They would commonly kill people because they thought of it as an example for non-believers as a type of motivation to accept the religion. It was because of this belief that jihad was an extremely popular choice of how to approach war during the Crusades.

The Crusades not only applies to jihad, but also to the similar concept of just war. It is vital to understand that the Crusades were a form of just war, as established by Pope Gregory within the church. It is a foundation for several Christian lands located in Europe, as many of the aggressors were motivated by the Popes. At times they would receive conflicting views in that some believed that even benevolent war was wrong to fight, while others held the outlook that immoral events took place in avoiding the minor aspects of just war.

In addition to this, the theory of just war was widespread throughout the European Christian perspective of the Crusades because of Pope Urban II. This was because mercenaries were trying to help him avoid Muslim invasions into the Byzantine Empire. Ultimately, Urban II declared war, branching off of the idea of a just war, and the premise of these factors that contributed to how the fighting was conducted. The thought process followed that, "With its sense that the highest good was to die fighting for the cause of the right deity, in a Christian just war. (Madden 82) The prominent social value became religion expressed as a religious act imposed by military nobility.

As demonstrated, the ideas of just war and jihad as they were expressed during the Crusades were very similar in their standard and motivation for war. While jihad was primarily inspired by religion through the Muslims, just war was carried out as a more peaceful expression demonstrated by European Christians. It was the common ground influence that sought to justify war from both people groups, portrayed through an instrument of brutal fighting, over a longing for the Holy Land, through sacred methods.

Caroll, Anne W. The Crusades In Christ the King: Lord of History: Tan Rock Publishers Inc, United States.: 1994.

Madden, Thomas F. The New Consise History of the Crusades: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, United States.: 1999.

Jihad and Just War

The concepts of jihad and St. Augustine’s theory of just war had both similarities and differences and contained aspects that were trying to establish a way to declare war in a just manner. However, a difference in these two concepts arises when considering why they developed these methods in the first place. The idea of jihad was expanded upon as the religious statement of struggling in the way of God. In other words, they were obeying their calling of fighting for a higher purpose. Just war on the other hand, had a more practical and applicable reasoning behind it. War wasn’t necessarily viewed as a bad thing; it just had to be performed in the right manner and this included abiding by several regulations in order for the performed action of aggression to be considered just. Both were significant methods that examined the overall morality of war, but are different when it comes to approaching religion through this observance.

Where the jihad is concerned, its primary goal is to maintain the constant reflection on religion, and how ethical principles apply to the steps taken concerning just warfare. It is with the culture that each Muslim thinks it is their call of duty of kill opposing civilians, along with their followers. “This is in accordance with the words of the Almighty God, and fight the pagans all together as they fight you all together, and fight them until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in God.”(Donner 132) In summation, this concept relies on religious transcripts, primarily the Qur’an as its standard on determining if war is pronounced in the right context that is holy and pleasing to God. It is this manuscript that entails a clear and direct message of “fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.” This was designed to imply that war had the potential of being put into action according to this, and that it was dependent upon the devout follower of Allah to strategize according to this.

In contrast, the theory of just war, as established by Saint Augustine, relied primarily on New Testament writings, as well as the works of the renowned philosopher Saint Augustine. It was through him making use of these two components that developed this moral perspective on declaring war, which has influenced several philosophers throughout time. It was because of these people that the main goal of just war was made clear; which was to re-institute peace in an appropriate and fair manner. This peace must be the favorable method of demeanor that would be successful despite whether the war had occurred or not.

It is in addition to this principle that establishes the fact that the theory of just war has the potential of being both theoretical and historical. Where the theoretical position is concerned, it deals with the true ethics and reasoning behind the agreements that have been established concerning the rules that were put in place. This then leads to the characteristics that justified war can display, in that it must agree with the set standards. In addition to this, the historical aspect is also included, which is the actual concrete rules that have been evident in various wars over the course of history. These were not only put in place for authority figures to condemn wrong doings, but also for inspecting the philosophical facets on how the regulations should be altered. Both of these areas have contributed significant ideas that has formed the true meaning and theory of just war through the work of Saint Augustine.

Despite their differences, the idea of jihad and just war had some similarities. The first one being that they both included the concept of self-defense as a main focus concerning the cause of war at its very origin. The reasoning of both of these views ultimately embraces the idea of expressing war righteously. In conclusion, though they come at the idea of war in slightly different ways, jihad and just war are very similar. “The scholars of jihad, for example, possess an abundance of scripture and traditions regarding the ethics of war and are motivated by religious doctrine stating that God's law is superior to man-made law. They are therefore more capable of including religion in their assessments.”(Rudolph 103) This is displayed through the religious teachings of Mohammad and the Qur’an that inspired the interworkings of how jihad was both thought of and portrayed. The development of just war followed a similar development pattern in that it was most influenced by Augustine. In addition, just war focused more on direct references to warfare through a more secular perspective, through intellectual reasoning. Despite the two outlooks, the goal was common, which was to fight a war justly.

Donner, Fred. The Sources of Islamic Conceptions of War: Greenwood Press: New York, 1996.

Peters, Rudolph. Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: Markus Wiener Publishers: United States, 1996.

Jihad

The word jihad has many meanings and implications, one of these being in how it is expressed in the Quran. This also relates to how Mohammad thought and acted upon it, which heavily influenced many people in the Islamic society. This then brought about the justification of it, coming from such a powerful leader in a vast religious community who was looking to express aggression in a way that was holy and pleasing to God.

Jihad frequently refers to combat, as this lies at the core of the definition. The Qur'an makes oabundant references to this fighting in the cause of faith. The question, however, is whether this fighting is sanctioned only for the purpose of self-defense. The Qur'an itself seems to be of two minds on this matter and Definitions can include Holy war waged on behalf of Islam as a religious duty and a bitter strife of a spirit of a holy war. It is also commonly referred to as “striving in the way of the Lord”, as derived from the Arabic translation. However, the concept jihad is wrongly called holy war most of the time, however it had two distinct meanings throughout the centuries. The first being that Muslims who hold the view their faith differently are considered infidels, or targets of jihad and Lends to the explaination as to why peopled groups such as Egyptians, Afghans, and Algerians were often victims of the jihadist violence. The second definition being that it defines the legal description of jihad as it instructs Muslims to abandon worldly distress, in order to attain spiritual profundity.

With its established definition, jihad was first permitted when Muhammad made his journey to Medina in the year 622 known as the Hegira. It was during this expedition that he and his few followers began raiding the caravans of the Meccans, which displayed aggressive action that lead to the first jihad. “In the raids the Muslims were taking the offensive. Muhammad cannot have failed to realize that, even if the raids were only slightly successful, the Meccans were bound to attempt reprisals. In these little raids, then, he was deliberately challenging and provoking the Meccans. In our peace-conscious age it is difficult to understand how a religious leader could thus engage in offensive war and become almost an aggressor.”(Kepel 103) They immigrated to this area and performed this action to preserve their livelihood on this expedient rampage.

It was after this that many people started to defend Mohammad and his exploit and one of their first reasons being that it was very common among the Arabian Desert people during the seventh century to retrieve resources that they could not access. This made it common for different tribes to ransack each other’s belongings. The second motive being that it was justified revenge, as attributed from the Qur’an. “Thus, whether Muhammad incited his followers to action and then used their wrongs [wrongs committed against them] to justify it, or whether he yielded to pressure from them to allow such action, the normal Arab practice of the razzia [raid] was taken over by the Islamic community. In being taken over, however, it was transformed. It became an activity of believers against unbelievers, and therefore took place within a religious context. The Emigrants were described as "striving with goods and person in the way of God [Qur'an 4:95, 9:20, 9:41, 9:44]." They were promoting one of the purposes of the Islamic community in trying to establish a region in which God was truly worshipped.”(Cleveland 205) Mohammad had created a title for himself of a person who was both a crucial spiritual leader and an overall good human being. When it concerns this expressed revenge, Islam thought of it as not being self defense, but rather that it was invalid motivation.

As demonstrated, these raids through way of jihad quickly transitioned from being a battle between Mohammad’s followers and fellow peoples for possessions, to a fight between believers and non-believers. It was during these that the common phrase “the first arrow shot, the first bloodshed, and the first man killed, was in the name of Islam.” The transition has been made clear; the purpose of jihad had gone from an economic “expedient” to a prominent stand for the new faith that had been established, staying strong within that culture to this day.

Cleveland, William L. A History of Modern Middle East: Westhouse Publishers Inc.: 2000.

Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: Trail of Political Islam: I.B. Tauris Publishers, 2001.

Saint Augustine's Theory of Just War

As the Roman Empire continued to decline, two different problems arose that combined to form some of the most profound philosophical questions. One of the dilemmas was that Rome was under constant military threat from a variety of tribes, from both the north and east. The second difficultly arose when the people within the empire, who dedicated themselves to the new official religion of Christianity, found themselves in a position of having no direction as to what military roles their faith would tolerate. It was the death of the apostles that put them into this position, as they left no revelation in the form of writings. This presents the main question that was formulated, and is also the center of Saint Augustine's theory of just war which is, "Can a Christian show their dedication towards military duty while still holding a guilt free conscience towards God?" Saint Augustine provides a deep insight when dealing with this issue that is truly inspirational.

It was during the fifth century that Saint Augustine of Hippo longed to provide an answer to this question. The way he approached the situation later became the basis for his theory of just war, which has had, and still continues to hold an extremely important philosophical influence concerning military matters. It is vitally important to recognize Augustine’s basis for thought and also to decisively consider this crucial principle.

The just war theory is one of the most significant perspectives on both war and peace. There are six stages that are to be performed within this, the first three which include a just cause, right intentions, correct power, and widespread declaration. Within just cause, it states that you can only proclaim war for the right reason. This usually extends to self-defense from an outside attack or the protection of others from forms of brutality that might be issued upon them. The rights reason declares that having an accurate reason is not enough to start a war. "The actual motivation behind the resort to war must also be morally appropriate. Ulterior motives, such as power, land grab, or irrational motives, such as revenge, or ethnic hatred, are ruled out."(Banner, 75 ) A third step in this proclamation is that you may only go to war if the proper choice has been ruled out by authority figures. They then announce it to the public, so that both the citizens and the enemies of the state are aware. The states who fail to abide by these standards cannot legitimately go to war.

The last three standards that comprise the just war theory are final alternative, the chance of being successful, and reasonable proportions. When the final resort is concerned, a state must resort to war only if all other peaceful alternatives cannot be expressed or applied in order to solve the conflict. Another degree that it has to pass is the stage of diplomatic cooperation, as they want to be completely sure that serious war is only announced when it is the only reasonable way left. In discussing the chance of being successful, it is not possible to enter a state of war if seeing ahead of time that it will have no significant impact. The overall goal here is to eliminate violence of the masses, which would be useless. Within the final step of reasonable proportions, a state has to figure out the widespread good that will come from initiating war, against the general iniquity that has the potential of resulting. "The universal must be stressed, since often in war states only tally their own expected benefits and costs, radically discounting those accruing to the enemy and to any innocent third parties."(Mattox, 63) In other words, war is only worth declaring if it worth the costs may the war action proceed.

As demonstrated, Saint Augustine's idea of just war is a very demanding theory, as all six of the principles must be articulated in order for war to be pronounced. It is vital to note that the first three conditions, known as the first-principle requirements, that imply for war to be just, certain core duties must be dishonored, which includes the responsibility not to express aggression. Saint Augustine ultimately came to the conclusion that for war to be declared, we must have both the proper authority and motives. Also that if we suffice to the obligation that comes with both declaring war, and the consequences that follow.

Mattox, John M. St. Augustine's Theory of Just War. United States: Worth Publishers, 2007.


Banner, William A. The Path of Saint Augustine. New York: Wiley Publishing, Inc. 2005

The Most Important Thing I Have Learned This Year

The most important thing I have learned this year is how the Romans influenced us through their forms of both architecture and religion. They played a major role in the devolvement of the different types of architecture we see even to this day as they introduced many new styles and approaches of classical art whose architectural difficulty still amazes us presently. They also helped Early Christianity it its beginning stages in order for it to flourish and continue is a testament to the great importance it held. The Roman people as a whole generally accepted it because it differed from their original foundation religion- the Roman Pantheon.

The many styles of Roman architecture that is still being imitated in today’s building techniques include domes, arches, vaulted ceilings, as well as columns, the three primary ones being Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. This is important because without these many influences, we would not have the many magnificent buildings in existence today. Some of these structures include the Pantheon, Colosseum, and several amphitheatres that display this marvel of engineering and these public buildings also connect to the importance of religion because many of them were used to hold religious events. The large open dome of the Pantheon was designed to fit the requirements for sacred services and they are among the most impressive remains of the Roman Empire, with many still being used to accommodate these purposes in modern times.

This then leads to the importance of the dome, public baths, and the arch. The dome was used in constructing vaulted ceilings, which provided large covered areas that were ideal for numerous people to gather. It was this key factor that made public baths popular and it was these two components that made the Baths of Dioclecian as well as the Baths of Caracalla significant. This then lead the Romans to take advantage of the sculpting of the arch. This was a symbol of power on earth, which transformed architecture and was first utilized with the Christian basilicas. This symbol of power on earth transformed the Roman Empire when it was in its worst times and on the verge of collapse. The arch was usually set before an altar, to represent the triumph Christ had over death through his resurrection.

This directly relates to the importance of religion, but specifically Christianity, and the profound influence it had on the Roman Empire. Although it took a while for the Roman people to fully accept the basic principles of this new religion, as portrayed through much persecution, they eventually put their trust in it, having it displayed throughout many aspects of everyday life. These areas include creating religious festivals and ceremonies, as well as putting leaders with Christian values in authority. The Roman's eventual adherence to Christianity displays that the people realized it had a political nature, seeing that it had inseparable ties to the state, having a tremendous opportunity to dramatically reform Rome for the better.

A great opportunity was greatly taken advantage of with the role of Christian emperors and many of them took it to the point were it became such a focal point that Christianity became the official religion of Rome. When looking back at this period in history, it is evident that some of the best leadership was experienced during this age, and under the Christian influence. Even back then they displayed today’s motto of “one nation under God" and when truly trusting in this statement, the God-ordained institutions within government work much more efficiently. This is due to the fact that they followed the original design God laid out for how a government was intended to function.

As you can see, these two areas of the Roman Empire were very crucial in both its development and legacy. It was of great importance to me to learn this because it has major implications even in the world today. When looking around at the prominent buildings, there are usually many references to architecture that originated in Ancient Rome and still enjoyed today throughout modern society. We are imitating a great achievement met in that time, and reproducing it bringing its life into our modern world. The second vital influence was that of Christianity. Without it overcoming a period of intense persecution, it would have never brought the guiding light that both the people of Rome, and Rome itself desperately needed. Christianity brought about much needed change and revival within the Roman Empire and was probably the most important factor of that time for that region.

The Swine Flu Outbreak

Swine influenza, more commonly known as the swine flu, is a respiratory disease from pigs that causes a strain of influenza virus. As with all other common flu viruses, the swine flu viruses are constantly changing. When flu viruses from the various species of pigs infect them, the strains have the capacity to trade genes, causing new viruses to result. These outcomes can include a mixture of both swine and human viruses that emerge to form different cases. The most recently reported viruses, known as H1N1, is very contagious, and is spreading from human to human as we speak.

This newly discovered virus is not only affecting people within the United States, but around the world. These countries include Mexico, the United States, Canada, Europe, China, Germany, and sixteen others. A total of 778 people have been infected with this flu worldwide, and 226 of them in the United States alone. It came into the United States through people from Mexico crossing the boarder, entering in, and therefore introducing this virus or people traveling to Mexico and returning.

A key question that many people are asking is where did this virus come from? This concern has provided a light, turning us to look at where the new found virus came from within the period from which it evolved. Its relative strain is what flu scientists refer to as "quadruple reassorant", which were three viruses that made up the genes from the common seasonal flu of the H3N2 family, which are the North American bird virus and a common swine flu. Scientists say that this flu "swap" was what gave rise to the swine flu outbreak today. It was the "quadruple reassorant" that extended throughout several swine in North America, Mexico, and Europe, but was not yet able to affect people. It was these factors that combined and it was in the current year, 2009 that the first case arose in Mexico.

This question then leads to why it is called the swine flu. This is because many of the laboratory testing showed that many of the genes in this influenza are very similar to the ones that normally occur in pigs in North America. However, extensive studies have shown that this strain differs from what normally circulates. It only contains two of the genes from flu viruses that circulate in the countries stated above. It is these countries that are reporting several people sick with this new virus, and is spreading in such a way as the common seasonal flu does.

When seeing that many people have come down with the virus, it leads to how severe this virus must really be. It is not completely clear yet as to how detrimental the flu will effect the general population, as some people may be more prone to infection, hospitalization, and a more serious reaction to it. To get an idea as to what the outcome will be, the normal seasonal flu is an excellent example. It is within this that certain people are at more risk that others, which include people 65 years and older, children under five years old, and pregnant women. At its current standings, the swine flu is affecting mostly younger children, teenagers, and young adults. The main cause of its spreading is though people coughing, sneezing, as well as touching objects.

The swine flu is rapidly spreading throughout the United States and other countries, after having its origin in Mexico. Many people have been affected, and the numbers are growing each day, on the verge of a worldwide pandemic. While its increasing numbers are frightening many people, there is no need for any serious alarm. By abiding by regular flu standards, such as washing your hands frequently, avoiding close contact with those who are sick, as well as others will help in the efforts to avoid acquiring the virus. Despite the two virus related deaths in the United States, the general population who get sick will be able to overcome the strain of this influenza, and make a full recovery.

Although within the past week the initial response of panic has calmed to one relative ease and many questions still remain the most essential weeks and months ahead. Some poignant questions remain such as will it continue to grow within countries detrimentally affecting impoverished countries? Will it fade only to return in the fall in a more virulent form? Will an effective vaccine be available by summer’s end? Some important questions remain unanswered at this time and it is still not clear if this new swine flu strain will run a relatively quite course or break into a storm as it gains strength. Only time will tell but until then it is wise not to panic and manage this flu outbreak as you would any other by taking obvious known precautions.

How Badly Pompeii was Affected by the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius

By the first century, Pompeii had many little cities and towns located near the base of Mount Vesuvius. This is where a substantial population grew, and had an affluent agricultural richness. However, it was on August 24, 79 that disaster struck. Mount Vesuvius literally blew its top, for the first time in 700 years, causing masses of molten ash, along with pumice and sulfur gas, suffocating both the inhabitants of Pompeii, along with people in adjacent cities. It also produced leaping flames coming off of several different points, whose bright glare was emphasized by the darkness of night. It was at this point that men, women, and children alike started to flee the city. "You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices."(Berry, 22) Many knew that a gruesome fate that was ahead for their relatives, which was death. Many prayed for the aid of the gods, however many thought they no longer existed.

Vesuvius had entered a history of volcanology with an eruption in 79AD.This explosion of the famous volcano had destroyed Herculaneum, Oplonti, along with the major city of Pompeii. Before its major eruptions, several earthquakes occurred, but were disregarded by the local community as just another phenomenon. "Wells dried up and springs stopped flowing. Dogs howled and birds were strangely silent. But Pompeiians went about their daily business, oblivious to the rumblings under their feet or the strange behavior of their pets."(Roberts, 16) However, Vesuvius’ major destroying eruption would not go unnoticed.

Residents quickly gathered as many personal belongings as possible out of their homes, and evacuated quickly to escape the choking ash. Much of the residue from the hurling debris gathered on rooftops, causing them to collapse. Slaves guided their masters through the streets on chairs, while livestock and carts were crowded all along the walkways. By dusk, ninety percent of the population had reached safety, and more would have most likely been out of harm if they were aware of what the mountain had in store. Instead they chose to ignore all of the warning signs including many earthquakes that shook the land beforehand.

The city was left in a state of devastation. An estimated 20,000 people died within the six surges of the eruption. The inhabitants who did not flee or die during the eruptions, were the first to be turned to an alternate technique of climbing trees in desperation in order to escape the dense pumice and debris that crowded the streets. However, many still died; the two primary causes being suffocation from the fumes, and broken bodies from the force of the eruption. Although most people were able to escape from the town, many still perished within the city of Pompeii and the nearby countrysides. It would not be until many years later through different avenues of excavation and rebuilding would frightening signs of death be present, such as extremely precise figures and outlines of the destined Pompeianites who were unsuccessful in their attempt to escape. Reisn and plaster would be used to capture the victims in their last seconds of life with supernatural expressions on their faces with detailed, disinct life like characteristics.

The city of Pompeii had not only endured severe damages to the land itself, but also the population. About 1,150 bodies were found through a recovering process within the ash deposits. The city of Pompeii was not rebuilt at that time, as the townspeople did not want to undertake the very extensive work that would need to take place in order to revitalize it. Much of the village and towns have been forgotten, as they are buried under several feet of ash due to the lava flow. Additionally, weathering erosion, and light exposure have all damaged the city over the years. The lack of air and moisture have allowed for the objects to remain underground, which makes the site good for analysis to understand more of this disaster. This remarkable tragedy, though terrible, has been in a state of conservation, providing its legacy to live on.

Even though the city of Pompeii was completely buried, it was revived to a degree again beginning in 1748 after more than 1600 years since its destruction at the hands of volcanic activity. Although many of the people were found buried under twelve layer of soil, astonishingly enough, many of the buildings were well preserved as well as the bodies which were frozen in time often dipicted in those just going about their daily routine of life that fateful day the volcano erupted. The ruins at Pompeii have imparted archaeologists much indispensible information with regards to how the people in the Roman Empire lived. The city of Pompeii is a fashionable travel destination today and one of the most visited cities with a prosperous income produced from curious travelers eager to get a glimpse of pop culture and history.

Berry, Joanne. The Complete Pompeii. London: Thames and Hudson Publishers, 2007.

Roberts, Russell. Mt. Vesuvius and the Destruction of Pompei, AD 79. United States: Mitchell Lane Publishers, 2005.

Stoic Movement in Ancient Rome

The single most important philosophy in Rome was Stoicism, which had its start in Hellenistic Greece. The substance within the worldview was very applicable to Roman religion, particularly because its insistence on agreeing that all situations were acceptable. This created a mindset for the people of being able to achieve their own level of virtue. However, the core of Stoicism was the concept of logic, and achieving virtue and worth through naturalistic beliefs. To them, this is what gave meaning to the universe.



Stoicism was the philosophy of both the Greek and Roman philosophers. These people were known as "Stoics" because of the school's founders, who were Zeno and Cyprus. These leaders taught at the Stoa Poikile(the painted porch) which is how the name came about. Their primary focus was on having a thriving relationship between cosmic determinism and human freedom, which included having a virtuous relationship and living in harmony with nature. "An effect of this portrayed their beliefs as a way of living, and thought that the best sign of an individuals outlook was not by words, but actions. "(Strange, 23) In was in Rome’s Ancient history that people such as Seneca and Epictetus accentuated that "virtue is sufficient for happiness"; a main theme within this movement.


The basic tenets of this movement were that it provided a correct outlook on the world through naturalistic ethics and formal logic. Logic to the Stoics referred to the meaning of an individual through the extent of sentences. "They used this method and stated that a sentence has no meaning unless it is completed, which implied that everything that happened on a daily basis was part of a bigger meaning, in painting the picture of history."(Sellars, 45) It was a component to greater good or reason. A quote that explains the connection between logic and using words to express it states, "Make yourself a definition or description of the thing which is presented to you, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in the substance, in its complete entirety, and tell yourself its proper name, and the names of the things of which it has been compounded, and into which it will be resolved. For nothing is to productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly object to what is presented to you in life." This statement is essentially saying that we as human beings can create our own reality to live by, according to our own logic, paving our on way, relying only on ourselves.



They also emphasized ethics in a way that based itself off of human knowledge, and in addition was an agent for teaching of self control and morals. By gaining understanding through this, it taught people how to be good thinkers, and to comprehend universal reasoning, making improvements on them as a person. Another saying that goes along with this is "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with nature." In order to have virtue and live correctly, you must adjust your life according to natural law.


The idea of Stoicism is very contrary to our currant system in our world today. It is evident that Stoics concentrated on the values of simplicity and equality amongst their people. In our modern culture, we do not view all people the same and are very critical and quick to judge within society. We also do not use common logic often, which would be looked down upon from their culture.



Another component of the Stoic structure was their ethics, which are seen very rarely today. Contrary to ethics being the only way to both achieve and understand true good, we have almost completely discarded ethics, which has the effect of corrupt souls. There are no sufficient means for happiness anymore, as our culture is extremely secular. A corresponding idea recited by a Stoic says that "the person who has achieved perfect consistency in the operation of his rational faculties, the "wise man", is extremely rare yet serves as a prescriptive for all." This sufficiently explains our culture today in comparison with Stoicism- we have fallen from conducting our lives with logic and morals, making prudent individuals hard to come by.

As stated above, it is very clear that the Stoic movement had its primary values that composed their belief system. It was through logic and naturalistic concepts that Stoics formed their worldview and outlook on life. Contrary to the modern Society, we do not take the time to think through situations with the precise logic this movement presents, but rather settle for mediocrity, not caring if we understand the world around us fully. Despite these differences, and the poor outlook the Stoics might have on our society, both are their own views on the world that can easily be contrasted, which is a key factor in understanding both histories.

Sellars, John. Stoicism: University of California Press: 2006.

Strange, Steven K. Stoicism: Traditions and Transformations: Cambridge University Press: 2004.

Early Christian Movement: Impacted by the Roman Empire

The underpinnings of Christianity as it relates to the Roman Empire is one that benefited from great widespread expansion throughout the height of the empire as never seen before. With Rome under stable control around the time of 27 BC, the society had entered an age of prosperity, expansion, and political stability. It was during this same period that Christianity began to develop. This growth was made possible through the inner orderliness of the church, which caused it to spread and eventually become institutionalized.

The very beginning of Christianity's official growth occrued with the church. "Since the very start of the religion, Christianity was scattered throughout the Roman Empire , however keeping Christianity unified was a major concern of the church leaders."(Novak, 32) It was the structure and arrangment of the Roman Empire that influenced how Christianity first came about. It also affected how it spread throughout other regions, which started out in urban cities, which were mainly populated by slaves and the poor, eventually spreading throughout Rome and a vast majority of the citizens.

One of the most important factors in the growth of Christianity by the Roman Empire was when Constantine was emperor. He saw the religion as a potential coalesce for society, and began to rapidly expand it. He began this by constructing several churches throughout Rome, and also passed decrees allowig many religions to be tolerated, but making clear that the people of Rome would benefit from Christianity the most. Many people were initially skeptical at this idea, since Christianity had taken nearly three centuries to fully develope, but he still adhered to the hope that it would gain imperial support as the others religions of that time had. He also appointed many bishops in order to help him with his movement and thus, Constatine's reign not only made early Chirstianity popular, but also equipped it with prestige in order for it to flourish.

Additionally, another person who would prove to have a significant impact on the growth of Christianity during Rome's history was Theodosius I. Although he was not a very well-known emperor, there is no doubt that he had a major role in expanding Christianity. As Michael Grant put it, "He earned the title Great becasue of his devout Christianity." "The main reason for this was that he used his power to actively enforce the religion, which ended up placing the power under the church, which set a standard for more than a millenium."(Addis, 42) Theodosius first displayed that he was a supporter of early Chirstianity and relied on God's help when he was witnesses in distress during a riot, and was observed publicly pleaded for God's mercy. It was clearly perceived that these actions marked a new chapter in Rome's history- one that would be marked in history as unifying church and state.

Yet another Roman emperor who devoted a majority of his reign in spreading Christianity was Jovian. At this point, both the Roman and Christian Empires celebrated at the arrival of another Christian as the leader of the state and his attention was primarily on impacting the Roman empire by turning all paegan temples in the area to churches. Another major step taken, was reestablishing Christianity as the official religion of Rome and continuing even farther, it was during his reign that Christianity remained the primary religion in both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.

At the heart of Christianity's rise to prominence within the Roman Empire, credit can be given to many of the emperors named above. In addition, a result of this, many people converted to Christianity as a result of both because of the early church and the Christian emperors who devoted their power and prominence to help it continue in its strength. The ultimate attempt at seperating church and state was no longer possible during this time, as this religion was both the official and dominant belief throughout Rome. Despite its slow progression, early Christianity, under the Roman influence, came to domination.

Novak, Ralph. Christianity and the Roman Empire: Continuum International Publishing Group: 2001.

Addis, William. Christianity and the Roman Empire: Sunday School Association: 2006.

Roman and Greek Pantheons

The Greek and Roman pantheons are a minor indication of one another. When looking at the gods of these two social groups, there is a clear portrayal of cultural rules, as well as vital customs with important implications. The main gods contained within these societies had a substantial effect on the Western culture as a whole, and more importantly how they were thought of and related to in the minds of people inside both the Greek and Roman worlds.

The source of the Roman pantheon and the groundwork for their mythology began with the faceless gods that contributed to the support to the community, while at the same time dwelling in all living things. The early Romans were not very concerned with the specific characters of the gods, but were more focused on whaThe source of the Roman pantheon and the groundwork for their mythology began with the faceless gods that contributed to the support of the community, while at the same time dwelling in all living things. The early Romans were not very concerned with the specific characters of the gods, but were more focused on what each of them were responsible for.“God’s presided over every aspect of life and death, including the phases of the agricultural year and the Romans also integrated their worship to these gods into both their public and private life.”(Bierlein 24) These gods and goddesses also came about from numerous religious influences, many of which had their start in Greek and Etruscan tribes. The various names given from the roots of these cultures lasted many years throughout Rome, and were eventually adopted to the extent that they upheld their names from other societies each of them were responsible for. It was through the syncretization of numerous Greek gods that established the Roman pantheon.

The Roman pantheon really began to emerge when they established their main gods, along with their key roles. Some of the gods which include but are not limited to were known as Jupiter the ruler of the gods, Apollo god of prophecy and the sun, Mars god of war, Minerva goddess of wisdom, Saturn god of agriculture, Venus goddess of gardens and fields, Pluto god of the underworld, and Neptune who was the god of the sea and earthquakes. The Romans envisioned their gods as more of powers than as people and they also thought that all their religious practices were preserved under the “pax deorum” or “peace of the gods”, which guaranteed the publics’ prosperity wealth and well- being.

In comparison to the Roman pantheon, the Greeks also had their primary gods. These gods are most commonly mentioned in their mythology, which were stories that explained the origins of the world, as well as details and adventures of the gods. In contrast to the Roman gods, the Greeks focused more on their unique personalities and genealogy with an example of this being that gods were associated with the various aspects of life. This was also a similar characteristic of the Roman pantheon, and likewise, the Greek gods also had a major influence over the culture and many other areas of life. Several people from these ancient times derived influence from Greek mythology and have discovered its contemporary significance.

In contrast with the Romans, the Greeks also instituted their major gods and goddesses, most commonly referred to as the twelve Olympians. These consisted of: Zeus the supreme ruler of all gods, Poseidon the god of the sea, Hades the god of the underworld, Hera queen of the gods and goddess of marriage and fertility, Demter the god of the harvest, Hermes the messenger god, Athena the goddess of war and wisdom, Dionysus the god of wine, Aphrodite the goddess of beauty, Hephaestus the god crafts, Ares the god of war, Apollo the god of music and prophecy, and Artemis who was the god of the hunt. These twelve gods and goddesses were also common in the Roman pantheon with the primary difference being a change in names, however, despite this, the Romans too had gods who attained these roles.

As detailed above, it is clear that both the Roman and Greek pantheons were so important that they were at the center of everyday life. They regarded it as part of their history, and used them to describe natural phenomena, variations in culture, and traditions in their culture. "For long periods of time the ideas of numerous gods and goddesses took on the prestige of elite knowledge that had a significant mark on history."(Laing, 60) Both of the pantheons had a role in each other, and had a constant, overlapping relationship that helped with their establishment.

Bierlein, J.F.: Myths: Random House Publishing Group: United States: 1994.

Laing, Jennifer: The Greek and Roman Gods: David and Charles Publishers: United States: 1982.

Ancient Roman Art

The year 510 B.C.E. is usually the year cited as the beginning of the Roman era, for it was then that the Roman Republic was founded. This period included a long era of expansion and consolidation in which many territories were brought under Roman rule and with this rule came the ushering in of great works of art. Roman art world evolve to include not only the visual arts that were produced in Rome, but major art forms known as mosaics, architecture, sculpture, and painting. All of these unique styles have their own contribution to Rome through their communication and portrayal of the different aspects of the Roman culture.

The first kind of very popular artwork done by the Romans was the mosaic. These intricate pieces of art were assembled by placing small portions of glass, tile, or stone into a mortar background, that shaped a pattern or picture. The Romans derived this skill from the Greek tradition and established this form of art in the third or fourth century. The mosaics were most commonly used as floors, and illustrated both Greek and Roman heroes within literature, gods, daily life, and impressions of nature. The level of detail in making these was extremely incredible; the great benefit of them being that obtained substantial durability and lasting color. Their durable construction and lasting quality gave way to explaining why floor mosaics remained intact for such long periods of time.

A second type of artwork that was done by the Romans was architecture. It was in this area that Rome produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over a vastly large region, Roman engineers developed methods of building on a very impressive level. Some of the most renown structures built include the Colosseum and the Pantheon, which required vast progress within the engineering field on a substantial scale.It was during Rome’s Golden Age that the massive building programs of monuments, aqueducts, baths, palaces, and temples emerged. The common Greek and Etruscan influences were also present in these developments as well. This was key in producing novelties such as the round temple and curved arch, both of which were very common and widespread

The third variety of Ancient Roman art was sculpture. It was at its peak of popularity in about 146 B.C. and most were inspired by the Greeks. Statues were most commonly used in decorating houses or villas, and were also used to honor a ruler, commemorate victories, or to promote the government. They were carved in such a way to produce the most realistic views of these things. This was prominent with the public, as for it being a society without any newspapers or photographs, it was the grand sculptures that was a significant source of both information and communication.

A fourth method of art was painting. Romans painted primarily on panels or plaster, as well as the walls, ivory, and wood. Panting were usually done of gardens, woods, groves, trees, channels, coastlines, and rivers. “ This was sometimes done by covering the whole area of the walls with elaborate landscapes, in which depth, atmosphere, and light are rendered in a highly pictorial, illusionist manner.”(Hodge 14)This popular painting technique was known as “fresco” and included brightly colored backgrounds that were separated on walls in different rectangular sections. Not only was painting primarily focused on depiction, but also provides and illustrates a brief history of Rome.

Roman art is vast and wide and has generally been viewed as beginning with the republic in 510 BC with the end of Roman art and the beginning of medieval art occurring with the transition to the emperor Constantine to Christianity. Roman styles which include pagan roman subjects continued for centuries that followed however usually appearing as Christian art because of the influence of Christianity. "Roman art had been historically divided into two main phases the first being the art of the Republic and the second as the art of the Roman Empire with variations emerging depending upon which dynasty was ruling at the time."(D'Ambra, 46)With the initial Republic founding the expression Roman Art was tantamount with the city of Rome and it was only within the last two centuries that Greece and Roman art divided from Etruscan art and before Christ there is seen a unique Roman manner of building, sculpting and painting as described above. Owed to the diverse and expansive geography of the Romans Empire along with the many varied populace, the resultant art to come out of Rome has always been dissimilar with m any variations owing to the distinctive areas individual taste and inclination towards art at the time.

Hodge, Susie Ancient Roman Art: Heinemann Interactive Library: United States, 1998.

D'Ambra, Eve Roman Art: Cambridge University Press: Unites States, 1998.