The Mummification Process

The method of mummification, or the embalmment of the dead body, was the technique used by the Egyptians. Using this process, they removed all moisture from the body, leaving only the dried form that would not easily decay. This practice was crucial to Egyptian religion because the goal to conserve the dead body in the most life- like way as possible. It was also a task that was practiced throughout early Egyptian history. However the earliest forms of mummification were probably accidental. By chance, dry air preserved bodies that were enclosed in shallow pits in the sand. But during the fourth and fifth dynasties, Egyptians began to mummify with intent, and continued to do so for over 2,000 years.

The mummification process took approximately 70 days and had four main stages. In the first stage, priests worked as embalmers in removing all the internal parts of the body in order to prevent decay. The embalmers removed organs in the abdomen and chest region through an incision most commonly made on the left side of the abdomen. The only internal organ left is place was the heart because it was believed to be the center of a person's intelligence. The other organs such as the stomach, liver, intestines, and lungs were conserved in special containers referred to as canopic jars. These were later buried with the mummy as part of a ritual.


During the second stage of preservation, all moisture was removed from the body. This was done by applying natron, a type of salt, which had excellent drying properties. Natron packets were also placed within the body to further dehydrate the body. Once the body was thoroughly dry, the internal packets were removed and the natron was washed off the body. The result of this was a dried out human form, but still recognizable.


Within the third stage, the wrapping of the mummy began. This required hundreds of yards of linens. The embalmers executed another job in the process by winding the long strips of linen around the entire body, while also focusing on wrapping each finger separately before doing the whole hand. It was during this stage that priests placed good luck charms along with prayers and magical passages that were written upon the linens. It was also common for the priests to place masks portraying the person's face between the multiple layers of wrappings. It was after the priests secured the final cloth in place with strips of linen that they marked the completion of the mummy.


All was now ready for the funeral. It was during this phase that priests presented particular religious rituals at the entrance of the tomb. This ceremony was called the "Opening of the Mouth." It was given this name because a priest touched distinct parts of the mummy with a special utensil in order to "open" those parts of the body. This was needed in order to open the body to certain senses that were needed in the afterlife. The last part of the body to be touched was the mouth, allowing it to be open in order for it to speak and eat. The mummy was now ready for the afterlife, as it was placed in a series of coffins and positioned in a sealed burial chamber.


Why preserve the body? It was a vital belief the Egyptians that the body was a type of home for the spirit and soul. Although mummification existed in other cultures, eternal life was the main focus of all Ancient Egyptians, which meant preserving the body forever.(Brier 112) It was also the home to the afterlife, and its complexity consisted of three spirits: the ka, ba, and akh. The ka was a copy of the person that remained in the tomb and required the offerings and objects there. The ba was the soul itself and was able to come and go freely to and from the tomb as desired. The akh, most commonly translated as spirit journeyed to the underworld to the “Final Judgment" and the entrance to the afterlife. All three components were essential to the importance of Egyptian after life and mummification.

I found this to be my favorite part of Egyptian history because it was very interesting the way the Egyptians valued the preservation of bodies. They thought that the way in which the preservation was executed was crucial in them succeeding and finding pleasure in the afterlife. To assure their continued existence in the afterlife, the ancient Egyptians worked hard to find the perfect method of preserving the body.(Silverman 83) This was so important that they spent most of their lifetimes doing their best to make sure this vital step was going to be carried out properly.

Brier, Bob. Egyptian Mummies: Unraveling the Secrets of an Ancient Art. New York: William Morrow and Company Inc., 1994.

Silverman David, P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra VII, who ruled from 51 to 30 BC, was the intelligent and politically incisive pharaoh who was born to Ptolemy XII and possibly Cleopatra V. Historians believe that she had three sisters and two younger brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, both of which she married. By the time Cleopatra became ruler in 51 BC, her family had ruled Egypt for 251 years; Cleopatra would also be the last ruler of Egypt. During her reign she earned a less than desirable reputation, but as the lover of the Roman emperors Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, Cleopatra would go down in history as a romantic fable.

Cleopatra ruled with her father at age 19, and much like those that ruled before him, Ptolemy XII's court was plagued with violence and corruption. Cleopatra learned her political lessons from her father as she watched his embarrassing efforts to uphold the throne of Egypt through the buying of support from the powerful Romans. However, soon after doing this her father died, leaving the throne in the hands of his children, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII. The conditions and orders were that she should marry the elder of her two brothers, which she did, and it was clear that she was the dominant, controlling force in that relationship and it was during this time that Cleopatra was driven from Egypt in 48 BC.

Despite being exiled from Egypt, Cleopatra made preparations to return to Egypt by force. But when Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria subsequent to the Battle of Pharsalus, she perceived an opportunity to use him. It was during this process that her brother Ptolemy XIII died while fighting Caesar, which restored the throne to Cleopatra and her other brother Ptolemy XIV. The relationship between Caesar and Cleopatra, which grew from their mutual to desire for power and money, resulted in an affair in which Cleopatra bore him one son. Cleopatra longed for power in Rome, while Caesar wanted riches found in Cleopatra's court which made for an ideal association.

Based on these two covets, power and money, they came to an agreement that pleased the both of them in which he placed Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt as his mistress, while ensuring her that Egypt would not be captured by Rome. He also made certain that since he had no sons, he would choose someone from Cleopatra's own line of family to eventually become the heir of both Egypt and Rome. However, when she later went to visit him in Rome between 47 and 44 BC, she discovered that he had been assassinated under mysterious circumstances. It is commonly believed that Cleopatra herself poisoned him and it was after this that she made her son Caesarion her partner on the throne. (Silverman 38) Just as promised, the heir was chosen from her own family.

Cleopatra then summoned a meeting at Tarsus with Mark Anthony in the winter of 41 and 40 BC. It was during this time that he established a relationship with Cleopatra and because of this relationship he sent his wife Octavia to Italy with the excuse that she was pregnant. As he began to focus on planning a ritualistic marriage and making final preparations for the invasion in Parthia, his priorities changed to focusing on Cleopatra’s pregnancy. She gave birth to twins; a boy and a girl who were named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. The struggle for power between Antony and Octavian, Caesar’s heir, came to a head at Actium on the west coast of Greece on the afternoon of September 2, 31 BC with a battle at sea, when for some unknown reason Antony broke off the engagement and sailed for the open sea after Cleopatra’s ships. In spite of this, the changes in precedence caused the failure of his Parthian campaign, but Cleopatra in return supplied him with financial help that was greatly needed.

Cleopatra spent her life watching the struggle of outside forces, first Pompey against Caesar, and then the assassins of Caesar against his avenger, Antony, and then Antony against Caesar's great nephew, the future Augustus. Her will was unquenchable and opportunistic; as a ruler she was a failure, and as a military ally to Antony, a disaster. (Silverman 41)The flight of sixty Egyptian ships under Cleopatra’s command from the decisive battle of Actium not only reduced Antony’s fleet, but in their impulsive desire to get back to Egypt, broke the battle line.

It was during this campaign in the Battle of Actium that was a turning point which caused disaster for the Egyptians. Anthony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, and Cleopatra retired to her mausoleum as Anthony went off to fight his last battle. Receiving false news that Cleopatra had died, Anthony fell on his sword. (Clayton 216) Cleopatra then buried Anthony and committed suicide. Though the means of her death remain uncertain, it is commonly believed that she went into her tomb with a basket of figs that contained asps, which were a symbol of divine royalty. The poisonous venom caused her to die at age 39 after being pharaoh for 22 years and as was their wish, Anthony and Cleopatra were buried together. Although her beauty has been fabled in literature, Cleopatra was above all things a very clever, intelligent and political woman; she had to be to captivate two such men as Caesar and Antony and endeavor to use them to preserve her kingdom. This marked the end of Egypt's last queen's reign, which left behind a legacy that will never be forgotten.


Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1994.

Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.