Final Exam Questions

1.) What effect did geography have on the civilations that emerged in Egypt and Mesopotamia?
2.) What were some features that both the Persian and Assyrian Empires had in common?
3.) In the city-states of Ancient Mesopotamia, the economy was based on: ( ) plus ( ) and industry.
4.)Who divided the Persian Empire into satrapies, or pronvinces?
5.)Where was the site of Minoan civilization?
6.)What three factors made it possible for the emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia?
a.monotheism, cuneiforms, defensive lines
b.cities, organized governments, irrigation
c.monotheism, arranged marriages, building supplies
d.pyramids, slavery, astronomy
7.)The ( ) style of temple architecture featured slender columns with spiral-shaped capitals
a. Hellenistic
b.Doric
c.Corinthian
d.Ionic
8.)The ( ) weakened the major Greek states and destroyed any possibilty of cooperation among them:
a.Long Walls
b.The Great Peloponesian War
c.Battle of Marathon
d.Persian Wars
9.)The Athenians formed the ( ) to serve as a defensive alliance.
10.)Sparta's ( ) decided which issues to confront their assembly with.

Greek Architecture

Greek Architecture would have far reaching and lasting effects and many actions to come since its inception. If you look around at architecture seen through banks, office buildings, churches, and museums, you are almost sure to see some aspect the derived from the Greek form of architecture many years ago. It has been copied, emulated, and admired for many centuries and is still viewed as a classical form of architecture ad design as well as great aesthetic beauty in many forms.

There were three main styles or “orders” in Greek Architecture, which consisted of Ionic, Doric, and Corinthian. These three main designs were most commonly portrayed through the construction of Greek marble columns, which were by far the most prominent structure in their architecture. Their names were used by the Greeks and also reflected their beliefs pertaining to these styles, which descended from the Ionian and Dorian Greeks from the Dark Ages. These styles were so important that it not only made Greek art original, but played a significant role in changing art for those who preceded them. The Ionic style originally evolved in Ionia on the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea. This type of column was very elegant and had a scroll- like design, also known as a volute. Ionic columns normally stand on a base which separates the shaft of the column from the styobate, or platform. The capital of the Ionic column has characteristic paired scrolling volutes that are laid on the molded cap that springs from within it. The cap being the most elaborate detail, was usually very enriched, and just as the vital volutes lied in a single plane that was angled at the corners. This brought both uniqueness and originality to the detailed Ionic columns, which were to be admired and emulated throughout time.

The Doric “order” was the earliest style developed of the prominent three. It originated in the 7th and 8th centuries, reaching its apex in the 5th century. Because of its appearance, these columns were most commonly built on the outside of churches and public meeting places. In their original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly on flat pavement of a temple. Its exterior can be described as having parallel grooves that run from the top to the bottom of the columns. They were topped with a square- cut piece of marble that intersected with the vertical grooves.

The Corinthian column, the most elaborate of the three columns, was the most seldom used in Greek Architecture. This type of column has a ring- like molding, or banding beneath it at its base. Preceding its vertical indentions that characterize the Greek columns, it has elaborate designs at the top. Some of which included bellflowers and leaves that were decoratively carved. These detailed columns can also be seen in many prominent buildings such as the Flavian Amphitheatre and the Coliseum.

If some of these elements look familiar, it is because they have been passes in to the vocabulary of Western Architecture and form part of the basis of the style referred to broadly and known as classical. For centuries banks, museums, universities, government buildings, and churched have been built using the elements and style first designed and named by the Greeks.(Getlein 314)

The Greeks not only designed and executed the art of building beautiful columns, but also created them in such a way that has had a profound effect throughout the ages. Many of the styles have been reproduced and copied by some of what the modern day audiences would class as some of the finest architecture. Greek architecture was of great importance because the immense majority tell the timeless stories of gods, heroes, events, and the Greek culture in general. Many people even in today’s modern times copy the revered style as a sign of respect. They have depicted the famous architecture that truly changed the way art was viewed by the nations that followed.

The significance of Greek architecture as it relates to the history of Western civilization is of great importance and lasting substance. The Greeks were responsible and are to be credited with some of the most continuing themes, styles, viewpoints, and approaches to architecture that have engrained themselves throughout Western civilization.

Greek Art

Art, in the world of ancient Greece, has left an indelible mark on history through time, and has also left its influence on many cultures and walks of life.
There were many different styles of Greek art, all of which excelled and are why they are so respected. The major types include Archaic, Hellenistic, and Minoan art, as well as the Classical Period. All of these brought forth their own creative style and left a significant mark in the history of Greek art.

A prominent change would appear in the world of Greek art during the seventh century B.C., which became known as the Archaic period. The abstract geometric patterning that had controlled the art world during 1050 and 700 B.C. would be replaced in the seventh century by a more relaxed, unaffected style that would depict and show a noteworthy influence that came from the Near east and Egypt. The Kouros statues were one of the dominating features the Archaic period of art. All of the Kouros were either male or female statues that served as the promoter for their state. They were also designed in order to be decorations for the outside of religious buildings and were commonly carved out of marble. Formally, the Kouros statues that followed a carving formula that divides the human body into proportionally pleasing geometric entities. The stylization of the different figure planes, along with the rigid poses allowed the sculptor an easy way to create the human figure.(Getlein 371) This was because all he had to do was follow a well- established traditional formula in order to represent the different parts that compromise human-likeness. The Archaic period of art acted like a silent witness to the extraordinary development that took place in western society. The Kouros statues resembled a true cultural revolution.

The Hellenistic period of art expanded the horizon on dramatic posing, high contrast of light and sweeping lines. It also allowed the artist to explore in order to get inspirations from unique points of view. Different from previous styles, the importance of Hellenistic art shifted from natural and religious themes to more dramatic human appearance. It accomplished this through depicting the human figure with bold expressions and energy through the carving the images in motion- like positions. The sculptures of this period abandon the self-containment of the earlier styles and appears to embrace its physical surroundings with dramatic groupings and creative landscaping of its context.(Freeman 11) The sculptor not only wanted to depict his subjects outward appearance, but the inward emotions and attitudes. This resulted in the statue acquiring an individual personality.

Minoan art portrays a society that was very much in touch with their environment and what has survived has afforded us great insight into the cultures and peoples that thrived in Crete. During this time, known as the Prepalatial period, many important developments were seen throughout Minoan culture that brought about a freedom to build and create in a peaceful and prosperous lifestyle. Above all, the unearthed artifacts reveal a people who had developed a high degree of self- respect and a keen eye for observing and adapting to their physical environment who had devoted insight and appreciation for the coherent order of the natural world. It would be through the Athenian vases that we would be able to witness Greek life in what is known as iconography art. (Getlein 374)These vases describe and portray Greek culture as related to funerary rites, daily life, government, athletics, warfare, religion, and mythology.

Pottery was the key item made using this style of art. The type of pottery was categorized as having thin walls, sweeping curves, and elegant spouts, along with decorations. The surfaces of the pots were usually decorated with bold lines, in which created naturalistic scenes. They rapidly became popular in areas such as Crete and Syria, and were commonly exported. Furthermore, it is through the plastered walls from the Minoan palaces and villas that we can retain a glimpse into the portrait of what life was life during this time. The Minoans were known for their “true” or “wet” panting method which allowed for creativity and naturalness which also benefited the Minoans style of movement and nature scenes that depicted their known style. An additional interest aspect of Minoan art is seen within the expression of human emotions and feelings portrayed in the faces and figures that had not been observed in the history of art prior to the Minoan culture. Because of this articulation of emotions, the Minoans were to become known as a people who were in touch with the human condition and inner world.

During the Classical Period of art, Ancient Greece produced some of the most beautiful sculptures that the world has ever seen beginning about the middle of the 5th century BC. By this time, many of the difficulties that artists had been facing in the early archaic period had been resolved, thus enabling more freedom and creativity to produce. This classic Greek style is categorized by cheerful freedom of movement and expression. Sculptors were able to replace the strict asymmetry of the figure with a free flowing form more true to life, while they approached an ideal aesthetic vision through stone and bronze. Architects transformed blocks of marble and stone into proportional realistic figures with the illusion of if they were moving through space. The sculptures were truly a demonstration of perfect proportions, values, and a newly discovered sense of freedom. Many of the works of the Greek painters have disappeared completely and we are only granted insight by way of what historians are able to tell us. From this time periods, fortunately, we have many artifacts in the form of Greek vases and the decorations on them that were left in tombs or unearthed by archeologists that portray and give us examples of what Greek painting would have looked like. They depict the true form and line that made the Greeks famous in the domain of sculpture.


Greek Art as described in the form of sculpture, vases, paintings and pottery, known as classical art, were huge contributions to the world of art and artists forever will owe a debt of gratitude to the ancient Greeks. As portrayed, each type of Greek art expressed unique style in accordance with the time period. Greeks have become renowned and seen by many as the foundation to western society’s art and ideas and encompasses a large amount of what made the Greek civilization so distinguished.

The Mummification Process

The method of mummification, or the embalmment of the dead body, was the technique used by the Egyptians. Using this process, they removed all moisture from the body, leaving only the dried form that would not easily decay. This practice was crucial to Egyptian religion because the goal to conserve the dead body in the most life- like way as possible. It was also a task that was practiced throughout early Egyptian history. However the earliest forms of mummification were probably accidental. By chance, dry air preserved bodies that were enclosed in shallow pits in the sand. But during the fourth and fifth dynasties, Egyptians began to mummify with intent, and continued to do so for over 2,000 years.

The mummification process took approximately 70 days and had four main stages. In the first stage, priests worked as embalmers in removing all the internal parts of the body in order to prevent decay. The embalmers removed organs in the abdomen and chest region through an incision most commonly made on the left side of the abdomen. The only internal organ left is place was the heart because it was believed to be the center of a person's intelligence. The other organs such as the stomach, liver, intestines, and lungs were conserved in special containers referred to as canopic jars. These were later buried with the mummy as part of a ritual.


During the second stage of preservation, all moisture was removed from the body. This was done by applying natron, a type of salt, which had excellent drying properties. Natron packets were also placed within the body to further dehydrate the body. Once the body was thoroughly dry, the internal packets were removed and the natron was washed off the body. The result of this was a dried out human form, but still recognizable.


Within the third stage, the wrapping of the mummy began. This required hundreds of yards of linens. The embalmers executed another job in the process by winding the long strips of linen around the entire body, while also focusing on wrapping each finger separately before doing the whole hand. It was during this stage that priests placed good luck charms along with prayers and magical passages that were written upon the linens. It was also common for the priests to place masks portraying the person's face between the multiple layers of wrappings. It was after the priests secured the final cloth in place with strips of linen that they marked the completion of the mummy.


All was now ready for the funeral. It was during this phase that priests presented particular religious rituals at the entrance of the tomb. This ceremony was called the "Opening of the Mouth." It was given this name because a priest touched distinct parts of the mummy with a special utensil in order to "open" those parts of the body. This was needed in order to open the body to certain senses that were needed in the afterlife. The last part of the body to be touched was the mouth, allowing it to be open in order for it to speak and eat. The mummy was now ready for the afterlife, as it was placed in a series of coffins and positioned in a sealed burial chamber.


Why preserve the body? It was a vital belief the Egyptians that the body was a type of home for the spirit and soul. Although mummification existed in other cultures, eternal life was the main focus of all Ancient Egyptians, which meant preserving the body forever.(Brier 112) It was also the home to the afterlife, and its complexity consisted of three spirits: the ka, ba, and akh. The ka was a copy of the person that remained in the tomb and required the offerings and objects there. The ba was the soul itself and was able to come and go freely to and from the tomb as desired. The akh, most commonly translated as spirit journeyed to the underworld to the “Final Judgment" and the entrance to the afterlife. All three components were essential to the importance of Egyptian after life and mummification.

I found this to be my favorite part of Egyptian history because it was very interesting the way the Egyptians valued the preservation of bodies. They thought that the way in which the preservation was executed was crucial in them succeeding and finding pleasure in the afterlife. To assure their continued existence in the afterlife, the ancient Egyptians worked hard to find the perfect method of preserving the body.(Silverman 83) This was so important that they spent most of their lifetimes doing their best to make sure this vital step was going to be carried out properly.

Brier, Bob. Egyptian Mummies: Unraveling the Secrets of an Ancient Art. New York: William Morrow and Company Inc., 1994.

Silverman David, P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra VII, who ruled from 51 to 30 BC, was the intelligent and politically incisive pharaoh who was born to Ptolemy XII and possibly Cleopatra V. Historians believe that she had three sisters and two younger brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, both of which she married. By the time Cleopatra became ruler in 51 BC, her family had ruled Egypt for 251 years; Cleopatra would also be the last ruler of Egypt. During her reign she earned a less than desirable reputation, but as the lover of the Roman emperors Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, Cleopatra would go down in history as a romantic fable.

Cleopatra ruled with her father at age 19, and much like those that ruled before him, Ptolemy XII's court was plagued with violence and corruption. Cleopatra learned her political lessons from her father as she watched his embarrassing efforts to uphold the throne of Egypt through the buying of support from the powerful Romans. However, soon after doing this her father died, leaving the throne in the hands of his children, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII. The conditions and orders were that she should marry the elder of her two brothers, which she did, and it was clear that she was the dominant, controlling force in that relationship and it was during this time that Cleopatra was driven from Egypt in 48 BC.

Despite being exiled from Egypt, Cleopatra made preparations to return to Egypt by force. But when Julius Caesar arrived in Alexandria subsequent to the Battle of Pharsalus, she perceived an opportunity to use him. It was during this process that her brother Ptolemy XIII died while fighting Caesar, which restored the throne to Cleopatra and her other brother Ptolemy XIV. The relationship between Caesar and Cleopatra, which grew from their mutual to desire for power and money, resulted in an affair in which Cleopatra bore him one son. Cleopatra longed for power in Rome, while Caesar wanted riches found in Cleopatra's court which made for an ideal association.

Based on these two covets, power and money, they came to an agreement that pleased the both of them in which he placed Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt as his mistress, while ensuring her that Egypt would not be captured by Rome. He also made certain that since he had no sons, he would choose someone from Cleopatra's own line of family to eventually become the heir of both Egypt and Rome. However, when she later went to visit him in Rome between 47 and 44 BC, she discovered that he had been assassinated under mysterious circumstances. It is commonly believed that Cleopatra herself poisoned him and it was after this that she made her son Caesarion her partner on the throne. (Silverman 38) Just as promised, the heir was chosen from her own family.

Cleopatra then summoned a meeting at Tarsus with Mark Anthony in the winter of 41 and 40 BC. It was during this time that he established a relationship with Cleopatra and because of this relationship he sent his wife Octavia to Italy with the excuse that she was pregnant. As he began to focus on planning a ritualistic marriage and making final preparations for the invasion in Parthia, his priorities changed to focusing on Cleopatra’s pregnancy. She gave birth to twins; a boy and a girl who were named Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. The struggle for power between Antony and Octavian, Caesar’s heir, came to a head at Actium on the west coast of Greece on the afternoon of September 2, 31 BC with a battle at sea, when for some unknown reason Antony broke off the engagement and sailed for the open sea after Cleopatra’s ships. In spite of this, the changes in precedence caused the failure of his Parthian campaign, but Cleopatra in return supplied him with financial help that was greatly needed.

Cleopatra spent her life watching the struggle of outside forces, first Pompey against Caesar, and then the assassins of Caesar against his avenger, Antony, and then Antony against Caesar's great nephew, the future Augustus. Her will was unquenchable and opportunistic; as a ruler she was a failure, and as a military ally to Antony, a disaster. (Silverman 41)The flight of sixty Egyptian ships under Cleopatra’s command from the decisive battle of Actium not only reduced Antony’s fleet, but in their impulsive desire to get back to Egypt, broke the battle line.

It was during this campaign in the Battle of Actium that was a turning point which caused disaster for the Egyptians. Anthony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt, and Cleopatra retired to her mausoleum as Anthony went off to fight his last battle. Receiving false news that Cleopatra had died, Anthony fell on his sword. (Clayton 216) Cleopatra then buried Anthony and committed suicide. Though the means of her death remain uncertain, it is commonly believed that she went into her tomb with a basket of figs that contained asps, which were a symbol of divine royalty. The poisonous venom caused her to die at age 39 after being pharaoh for 22 years and as was their wish, Anthony and Cleopatra were buried together. Although her beauty has been fabled in literature, Cleopatra was above all things a very clever, intelligent and political woman; she had to be to captivate two such men as Caesar and Antony and endeavor to use them to preserve her kingdom. This marked the end of Egypt's last queen's reign, which left behind a legacy that will never be forgotten.


Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1994.

Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

King Tutankhamun

King Tutankhamun was an Egyptian Pharaoh during Egypt's eighteenth dynasty, approximately 1333 BC-1324BC, in the Egyptian time period of the New Kingdom. His name meant "living image of Amun, Ruler of Upper Egyptian Heliopolis", and it is commonly used in paying honor to the divine being. He was born to his father Akhenaten and Kiya, who is commonly thought to be his mother and a lesser wife of Akhenaten. The original name given to him at birth was Tutankhaten, which put him in the line of pharaohs following Akhenaten. Later however a minor alteration changed the ending letters of his name from aten to amun, which hence gave him the name Tutankhamun.

King Tut was only about eight or nine years old when he became pharaoh and reigned for approximately ten years. It was during these early years that he spent most of his time in Amarna and the North Palace and within this stage that he got married to his half sister Ankhesenpaaten. They later had two daughters, who were stillborn, but had no sons.

One of the main priorities during his reign was to reverse Akhenaten's Amarna revolution. In year 3 of Tutankhamen's reign (1331), while he was still a boy, probably about eleven, and under the influence of two older advisors, (who were probably Akhenaten's vizier Ay and possibly Nefertiti), the ban on the old pantheon of the deities and their temples was lifted, the traditional privileges were restored to their priesthoods, and the capital was moved back to Thebes. (Clayton, 129) These adjustments were made to restore order to the chaos produced by Akhenaten and the changes were most likely caused by his advisors because of his age at the time.

Tut also carried out extensive building projects while king. He started his building work at Karnak and Luxor, which included the continuation of the entrance of colonnades of the Amenhotep III temple at Luxor, including associated statues, and his embellishment of the Karnak temple with images of Amun, Amunet, and Khonsu. There were also many statues and sphinxes depicting Tutankhamun himself, in addition to a small temple in the king's name. Another primary building city was a Kawa, where he built a temple which included a pair of granite lions.

Military wise, little happened during the reign of King Tut, which is surprising because one of his advisors was a well known general. But seemingly there were campaigns occurring in Nubia and Palestine/Syria, but this information is only known from a brightly painted box that was found in the king's tomb. However, it is very unlikely that Tutankhamun would have actually taken part in the military actions directly, and the campaigns that took place did not have much success.Tutankhamun died young, most likely at the age of eighteen or nineteen, during his ninth regnal year as king. There is no solid evidence as to the cause of his death, but is commonly believed that he was murdered, as indicated by a small sliver of bone in his cranial cavity. This could be a sign that someone had deliberately struck him.

King Tut's tomb is located in the Valley of the King's and is by far the best preserved royal tomb ever discovered. A man by the name of Howard Carter led the expedition in opening his tomb. After drilling a hole through the plaster wall in order to peer into the king's chamber, he stood in amazement at the sight of lavish gold furnishings. They found thrashed chariots, which were most likely broken by tomb robbers who were looking for gold. They also found two life-sized statues of guards holding maces and staffs. He also noticed that the only room that was decorated was the burial chamber wall. These four walls were painted with scenes of Tutankhamun's funeral and the underworld. His sarcophagus was in the chamber as well. It consisted of three coffins; the innermost was of solid gold, the outer two of wood overlaid with gold. The King's mummy lay in the midst of its entire splendor with its famous gold mask. (Silverman 35) This mask became famous, which was significant in Tut's case because ancient pharaohs believed that if their name was remembered, there soul would live on. He also thought of it a blessing to have been a boy-king, through which his character was truly powerful.


Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: New York: Thames and Hudson
Ltd., 1994.

Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press: 1997

Shuter, Jane. People Who Made History in Ancient Egypt. Austin Texas:
Steck-Vaughn Company: 2001

Ramses II

King Ramses the II, also known as Ramses the Great, was the third ruler during Egypt's nineteenth dynasty. He ruled from 1304 to 1237 BC, and was regarded as the greatest pharaoh in Egyptian history. During his long reign of 67 years, everything was done on a grand scale. No other pharaoh constructed so many temples or erected so many colossal statues and obelisks. (Clayton, 146) He provided the strong rule that Egypt so desperately needed.

Ramses also remains a significant Pharaoh to the story of the Exodus. (Shuter 35) The Hebrew people were set to work on the construction of the many new temples for the Pharaoh. God, taking pity of the Hebrew people, commanded Pharaoh to let them go. Pharaoh stubbornly resisted and endured many disasters until all the first born Egyptian children mysteriously died; it was then that he finally let them go.
Ramses II was born to Queen Tuy and his father Seti I in the year 1279 B.C. He was well informed at a young age that he was his family's only hope of keeping power in Egypt, since his older brother had passed away. Beginning his reign at about the age of twenty, it is recorded that he had eight wives. His two main wives were Nefertari and Istnofet. It was presumed that he had over one hundred kids with his collection of wives.

He set out on many campaigns to return territories that had been previously owned by the Nubians and to secure Egypt's borders. He displayed that he was a productive ruler when he fought to reclaim territory in Africa and Western Asia. He focused on defeating his main enemy- the Hittites. During his fifth year as pharaoh, he led a campaign known as the Battle of Kadesh. Ramses II tried to keep the newly acquired territory (modern- day Syria) but lost the battle to his enemy. Seen as an impasse, Ramses II pulled back and Kadesh remained with the Hittites once more. However, a peace treaty was later signed which divided the territory. He also attacked other enemy groups within his duration as pharaoh, such as the Libyans and the Nubians; this depicted his military might.

One of the greatest accomplishments of Rameses II, and seen throughout his reign, was his love for architecture, and he stands unsurpassed among the pharaohs of Egypt as a monument builder. There are accounts of his honor hewn on stone, statues, and remains of palaces and temples. The most prominent being the Ramesseum in western Thebes and at the rock temples of Abu Simbel. The great complex of Ramesseum was built in between the Qurna and a desert known as Ramesseum. The compound stood as a monument of the great pharaoh and his army for achieving success over the Hittite forces. This was built in epic proportion in order to indicate that his legacy would survive the threshold of time. The building of these monuments indicated the beginning of the pharaoh's passion for building.

In year 67, or 1212 BC, the great pharaoh, who was perhaps 96 years of age when he died, was buried in the famous location of the Valley of Kings. After the death of Ramses II this brought to a conclusion the last climax of Egypt's imperial power with few Pharaohs ever equaling his greatness as Ramses was an impressive ruler with his kingdom prospering greatly throughout his reign. It is often said that the popular perception of him was "as a model of what a king should be." (Baikie 234)It is apparent as to why he was known as Ramses the Great and even to this day, no structures are as brilliant as the structures built in that day. Ramses’ mummy can be seen in Cairo’s Egyptian museum.

Baikie, James. Story of the Pharaohs. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1917.

Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1998.

Shuter, Jane. Ancient Egypt. Austin Texas: Steck-Vaughn Company, 2001.

The Reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten

Akhenaten, whose name meant "Effetive Spirit of Aten", known as a philosopher and a thinker was pharaoh during Egypt's eighteenth dynasty. He promoted a view of the world that challenged the foundations of Egyptian belief. One of the most profound things that he did as pharaoh was to revolutionize religion; specifically compelling the Egyptian population to monotheism towards the god Aten. He also made major changes in acient Egyptian art, moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes to el-Amanna, and presented himself in a way that differed from any of his predecessors.

Akhenaten's reign lead to the reform of Egyptian art, which once had strict rules about how to draw people and what colors should be used. Under Akhenaten, a new, more natural approach was developed.(Clayton 124) One of the most unusual results of the art reformation was the depiction of the physical characteristics of Akhenaten himself. In many sculptures and paintings, he is shown to have a long neck and face with a sharp chin, narrow almond-shaped eyes, as well as a rounded stomach. According to the most popular belief, he suffered from Froehlich's Syndrome. It is also believed that the way he looked was some form of religious symbolism. It has been suggested that he was made to look this way in artwork as a representation of the god Aten.

The nature of Akhenaten's religious revolution was well established and clearly portrayed as he overthrew Egyptian polytheism in favor of worship of the single god Aten. His religion did center on one god, but the major importance was on Aten's visibility, tangibility, and irrefutable actuality; Akhenaten put no emphasis on faith. His religious revolution is viewed as a turning point in Egypt's belief system. This is because he turned away from polytheism and replaced it with monotheism, which was unheard of at that time. Akhenaten could implement this change because pharaohs ran the country and the church and opposition was not an opinion.(Shuter 27) However, this quickly diminished when his reign as pharaoh ended.

Another significant time in Egyptian history when Akhenaten was pharaoh was known as the Armana Period. He left Thebes with his family and moved to a new capital located in Middle Egypt, which was half way between Memphis and Thebes. He did this because he had a vision wherein he saw a sun disc between two mountains with the god Aten appearing in the sun disk, indicating the light. It was from this that he felt guided to build a new city bewtween the two mountains. When traveling 180 miles north of Thebes to the location, he discovered that the site had not been dedicated to any other gods or goddesses and this persuaded him to name it Akhenaten-The Horizon of the Aten. He then built an entire city devoted to Aten; complete with a necropolis and royal tomb. Work began on this new city in 1346 B.C. and was complete in 1344 B.C.

Akhenaten neglected foreign policy and showed little interest in keeping its borders safe. Akhenaten has been portrayed as a pharaoh who wanted to make everyone content, and in doing so tried to create a beautiful, optimistic religion and utopian place to live, while paying little attention to serious matters. History has been more realistic about the actuality of his reign and described Akhenaten as not living within the reality of his worshippers.(Stalcup 145) Around the eighteenth year of his ruling, in the year 1334 B.C., Akhenaten died with the circumstances never fully explained.

Akhenaten had a major influence through the reforms he made during this remarkable period in history. Some scholars have suggested that Akhenaten's reforms were the first genuine scholarly revolution in recorded history.(Silverman 129) What has been clearly shown is that Akhenaten's ideas were not accepted by most Egyptians. Through the course of history, what can be gleaned and memorable is that Akhenaten's changes affected most aspects of Egyptian culture even though his intellectual revolution seemed doomed to failure after his death.

Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharoahs. New York: Thames and Hudson,

Ltd., 1998.

Shuter, Jane. Ancient Egypt. Austin, Texas: Steck-Vaughn Company, 2001.

Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Stalcup, Brenda. Ancient Egypt Civilization. California: Greenhaven Press,

Inc., 2001.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

The Great Pyramids of Giza, the oldest and largest pyramids in the Giza Necropolis border what is now present-day Cairo, Egypt. The names of the pyramids are Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, after three kings. They are also the only lasting seven wonders of the ancient world. While it is known that the pyramids were built and used for the burial of pharaohs, not all representation and imagery is known and some mysteries still exist. These pyramids are one of the most famous tourist attractions in our contemporary world, along with the reality that they are the oldest, consecrated sites, and without doubt, to be counted in the company of the most remarkable.

The pyramids at Giza were built somewhere between 2700 and 2500 BC and were constructed to be used as tombs for the pharaohs as well as monuments to the pharaoh’s eminence. The Pyramid of Khufu, also known as the great pyramid at Giza, was built for King Khufus burial site. It was the largest of the three pyramids of Giza, and is the best known manmade structure in the world. It was not the first pyramid to be built yet it continues to remain intact for almost 4000 years. The second largest pyramid at Giza was Khafre and like the great pyramid, it was constructed by Khafre's father Khufu around 2558 and 2532 BC and built for Kahfre.The third major pyramid at Giza was the pyramid of Menkaure. Like the other two, it was constructed during the fourth dynasty of Old Kingdom Egypt. It was also the last pyramid built on the Giza Plateau and was built in honor and to hold the remains of Menkaure, who is thought to have been the grandson of Khufu.

There have been various theories as to who built the pyramids with a now widely accepted belief that the builders of the pyramids are known to be Egyptians and thus proven by excavated skeletons. It took an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 workers, along with a support staff, to build the pyramids at Giza with many living in nearby villages being over seen by the pharaoh’s supervisors. Some of these workers even left evidence in the form of graffiti on the walls of the pyramids indicating their loyalty to the pharaohs. It took more than manual labor to build the pyramids and help was derived from architects who maintained an accurate pyramid shape through design and measurement. Additional help included priests-astronomers who helped to chose the pyramids’ sites and orientations so that they would be on the suitable alliance with sacred constellations.(Roberts 73) For certain we know that whoever built the pyramids utilized expertise to cut, transport, and cement stones that does not even exist in today’s realm of technology.

Construction of the great pyramids encompasses various hypotheses. However, most are based on the thought that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry, dragging them and lifting them into position. How the enormous blocks were elevated to the ever increasing height of the pyramid still does not have an affirmative answer, although the evidence points to use of ramps. ( Silverman 107) The base of the great pyramids forms a virtual perfect square with architects using techniques developed by earlier pyramid builders. They selected a location at Giza on a horizontal area that would serve as a solid rock foundation and upon careful surveyance of the land, the first plane would be laid with successive levels constructed one on top of the other.

With all of today’s modern architectural technology it is hard to envision that the creation of these magnificent pyramids could be plausible. Along with the monumental physical mechanics of building the pyramids was the as impressive achievement of overseeing the teams of foreman, workers, and abundance of supplies necessary to complete this enormous task; all within the framework and constraints of time. There remains no known written blueprint describing the building of the pyramids, and a majority of what is known was extracted from archaeological evidence. What is concrete is that the Egyptians were able to employ uncomplicated but efficient tools to excavate the stone, transport them to the pyramid site and position them in suitable locations.
As you can see, the Pyramids of Giza are a marvel of human construction and engineering, and their precipitous size and scale challenges any structure that has been built within the last few hundreds of years.(Clayton, Prince 89) They are a demonstration of human ingenuity and strength by their ideal proportions. They are truly awe-inspiring to behold.

Roberts, J.M. The New Penguin History of The World. New York: Penguin Books, 2004.

Silverman, David P. Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Clayton, P. and Prince, M. The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. New York: Barnes & Noble

Books, 1998.