Renaissance Literature

Renaissance Literature refers to the time of European literature that had its start in Italy during the fourteenth century, and later extended into a majority of Europe in the seventeenth century. The first major contribution that made Renaissance literature possible was the printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg that caused writers to be able to have their works spread our amongst the people. This literature is particularly notable not only for this reason, but also because of the humanism movement which produced optimistic thinking when it came to the potential of human beings. A third explanation for why Renaissance literature was so distinguished was because of people utilizing writing in their own local vernacular rather than the classical languages of Greek and Latin.

The very machine that made literary works possible in book form was the Gutenberg printing press that was established in 1456. It was a mechanical device that applied pressure on an exterior that was covered in ink that was on a piece of paper or cloth. The components that were involved were first accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire by Gutenberg around 1440, centered on the idea of the existing screw presses. It was because of this that the process of bookmaking was possible, and as a result led to the first mass manufacturing of books throughout all of history, as one Renaissance printing press was able to create 3,600 pages a day. This is how the great works of Luther and Erasmus were able to be sold by the thousands.

With the institution of the printing press now being available, more and more people were starting to read books, realizing the depth of the ideas that were contained in them. One of the primary themes throughout these concepts was humanism, which was a movement of both cultural and educational improvement. It was headed primarily by writers, scholars, and civic leaders who would be considered humanists in our modern society. It challenged Renaissance education, as it was designed to be taught to individuals from textbooks that focused on logic, philosophy, theology, medicine, and law. This provided people with an extensive vocabulary, which caused them to write well and have a strong impact on their communities. Although it was taught through textbooks that centered on the above concepts, the foundation of the humanist movement was grounded in the studia humanitatis, or liberal arts curriculum. This consisted of grammar, rhetoric, logic, history, poetry, and moral philosophy, causing the great scholars and writers to emerge.

Society also started becoming aware of the vernacular literature that the humanists were utilizing when producing their writings. It was towards the middle of the fifteenth century that Latin was the primary literary language, but that quickly changed as several common vernaculars starting to occur. The Certame Coronario, which was a poetry contest held in Florence in 1441, had a particular goal in wanting to prove that the spoken language of Italian was not mediocre compared to Latin. It was this event that marked a significant change, which caused works to not only be written in Latin and Italian, but also in French and German, depending on the vernacular language of the region.

In conclusion, it is clearly seen that all three factors had a significant contribution when it came to having an impact on Renaissance literature. They are all interconnected as the Gutenberg printer made it possible for humanism to be portrayed through written works that were comprised using varying vernacular languages. The era of Renaissance literature is marked by written masterpieces comprised by people who took education very seriously. It is the combination of these two intellectual areas that makes the writings of this time so influential to the generations in the past, and also to those in the future.

Lewis, Clive. Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1998.

Payne, Michael. Renaissance Literature: an anthology Wiley-Blackwell Publishing: Malden, Massachusets, 2003.

The Black Death

The most important thing that I have learned this year was the Black Death. I thought that it was a very interesting topic that had a significant impact on the European world as a whole. The aspects of this topic that caught my attention were what caused it, what symptoms occurred, and the overall results of this disease. The Black Death was the deadliest pandemic in European history that reached its apex between the years of 1348 and 1350, and certainly a disaste that will never be forgotten.

There were several possibilities for what caused the Black Death, but the most common was the widespread transmission of a bacteria known as yersinia pestis, which is carried by way of fleas. It was these fleas that then infected black rats, which were brought into Europe through trading with Asia. This happened when ships both imported and exported goods to different countries and rats would get onto the ships unnoticed. In correspondence with the rats, many cats had been killed in Europe because of their growing population. People disliked this because of cat's association with witchcraft and Satan. It was this mass slaughter of cats that led to the arrival of the infected rats, whose populations began to thrive.

The Black Death had several symptoms including fever, headaches, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting, and above all black buboes that were extremely painful. These buboes were puss filled blisters that appeared on places on the body that were particularly warm, such as the armpit, groin, and neck. They were a result of swollen lymph nodes that caused the blisters to arise and become black in color, which gave the Black plague its name. In addition to the buboes, the fever that those who were infected experienced was very unpleasant because it could reach anywhere from 101 degrees to 105 degrees fahrenheit. The other symptoms which were headaches, muscle pain, nausea, and vomiting were very similar to that of the flu that we experience today.

Results of this terrible disease were devastating, as forty to fifty percent of the European population died within just four years. However this deadly sickness did not just affect Europe, but also had an impact on Germany, Spain, England, and the Middle East. It killed approximately seventy five to eighty percent of the population, while in Germany and England it was closer to twenty percent. The Middle East also suffered greatly from this plague, as one third of their population died. Overall, the death toll was so devastating, that it took many years for Europe and its surrounding areas to have their population grow to the number that it was before the Black Death stormed in, taking the lives of the many it came into contact with.

In conclusion, the Black Death was certainly a widespread disease that had a traumatic effect on the people that it came into contact with. No one could figure out the cause of this killer or why it was so violent when it was claiming the lives of many, all they could see was the shocking effect that it had on their people. It created much havoc when it came to society, economics, and religion throughout European history. Such a cataclysmic event that killed an estimated 350 to 375 million people will always be remembered.

Benedictow, Ole J. The Black Death, 1346-1353: the complete history the Boydell Press: New York, 2004.

Cantor, Norman F. In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It Made Free Press Publishing: New York, 2002.

Medieval Art

Medieval art within the western world expanded over a wide horizon of both time and place, covering about 1000 years, causing it to have a significant impact on the art within Europe. It was comprised of several major art movements, wherein important styles of art and artists emerged. Some of these styles of artwork include early Christian art, Byzantine art, and Romanesque art, each of which contained major artists who made a name for themselves that has remained famous throughout the centuries.

Early Christian art, more commonly referred to as Latin Antique Art, was prominent from about 200 to about 500, but is frequently associated within the 4th century when Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. "With this came the acceptance of the artistic style known as iconography, which explores the identification and portrayal of the content of images."(Stokstad 231) The literal translation of the word is “image writing”; with a more common meaning expressing that it was the painting of icons that reflected upon the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian traditions. The surviving record of this style of art is most commonly found in the tomb painting at the catacombs of Rome and it was after this that there were several mosaics that were done in churches that were built under the imperial patronage. The Early Christian art had formed techniques of artistic style from which Northern Europe would draw from to create the definition of the Roman style.


A second style of art that was particularly popular during the medieval period was Byzantine art, which emerged after the division that occurred within the Roman Empire. "It emerged around the year 500, and expressed that it was a very conservative style of artwork as it was done according to the tradition of Greek realism."(Sekules 128) As a result, monumental structures were a prominent method of expressing art throughout the Byzantine Empire. In addition to this, many of the artwork that was produced of the finest quality was created by the Byzantines, as the central city of production was Constantinople. Above all, the Byzantines crowing accomplishment within art were the monumental mosaics and frescos, which were located on the domes of churches. However most of these were destroyed due to natural disasters that occurred.

A third popular method of approaching art was known as the Romanesque period, which lasted from 1000 to the start of Gothic art in the twelfth century. It originally developed as a result of monasticism in Western Europe, having its start in France. It eventually spread to Christian England, Spain, Germany, Italy, and Flanders, becoming the first medieval style to be widely spread throughout Europe. It was mainly expressed through figurative sculptures that were colorfully painted, which provided an important component to large churches. They were commonly placed in the capitals of the columns that surrounded the magnificent churches, as well as around remarkable portals, that were centered above doors. They best representation of these are found at the Vezelay Abbey and the Autun Cathedral, which express how important this style of art was in creating these buildings.

In conclusion, the various types of art that was prominent during the medieval period not only had an impact when first emerging, but a lasting impression that would have a very influential impact in the centuries to follow. Even up to our modern day society we are still recreating the various artistic styles that first originated from early Christian, Byzantine, and Roman ideas that were displayed in magnificent ways. It was an outstanding depiction of detailed craftsmanship that was truly inspiring for several artists that would emerge in future generations.

Sekules, Veronica. Medival Art. Oxford University Press: New York, 2001.

Stokstad, Marilyn. Medival Art: Second Edition. Westview Press: United States, 2004.

The Fifth Crusade and Beyond

In addition to the first four crusades, there were also five others that followed, causing there to be nine gruesome attempts of fighting against one main cause; the infidel group of the Muslims. Considering this, the crusades were all a series of religiously-focused military expeditions that were started by the Latin’s in Christian Europe, focusing on the Franks and the Holy Roman Empire. The crusaders were longing for control over the beloved Holy Land, and fought for this for over two hundred years between 1095 and 1291. These battles were waged primarily against the Muslims, but also included other groups of people such as Greek Orthodox Christians, Slavs, Mongols, and Jews. It was the determined crusaders who sought penance for their past sins that made the crusades both possible, and a milestone in history that had many significant impacts.


It was after the fourth crusade that the fighting continued , causing a fifth crusade to emerge as a result of the Church pushing to further the fighting. The church played a major part in this because they carried out processions and ceremonies of prayer in order to urge for another confrontation with the infidel. It was the Fourth Council of the Lateran who devised a plan for the recapturing of the Holy Land, which consisted of three phases. In the first phase, a crusading group from Hungary and Austria combined with the men who were under both the King of Jerusalem and the prince of Antioch. Within the second phase, the crusaders achieved an amazing accomplishment when they captured Damietta in Egypt in 1219, with the aid of the Pelagius, the papal legate. “They then launched a foolhardy attack on Cairo in July of 1221. The crusaders were turned back after the dwindling supplies led to a forced retreat.” (Nicholson 94) It was an attack performed during the night by the ruler of Egypt who was the sultan Al-Kamil, which had devastating consequences with many crusaders dying. This is what initiated the eight year peace agreement with Europe.


The sixth crusade was one that was vowed to be initiated by Emperor Fredrick II, who commonly failed to live up to his word and promises. This resulted in him later being excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX in 1228. This caused him to sail from Brindisi to Palestine where he experienced success when he took over Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem through diplomacy and this was vital as it provided deliverance to the crusaders for about ten years. In addition to this, Frederick II had failed to conquer Egypt in 1229, and instead formed a peace treaty with Al-Kamil who was the ruler of Egypt. It was this particular treaty that allowed the Christians to have control over a majority of Jerusalem, while the Muslims had management over the Dome of the Rock, located at the Al-Aksa mosque. This treaty was very successful in retaining peace, but several of the Muslims were not content with Al-Kamil for giving up control of Jerusalem, which later caused a siege wherein the Muslims gained control over the scared city once again.


Matters of the seventh crusade were brought about by the papal interests that were expressed by the Templars, who brought conflict into Egypt in 1243. It was the following year that a Khwarezmian force who was called out to serve, abruptly invaded Jerusalem. This caused the crusaders to be involved in a battle that was at La Forbie in Gaza. “The crusader army and its Bedouin mercenaries were completely defeated within forty eight hours by Baibar’s force of Khwarezmian tribesmen. This battle is considered by many historians to have been the death knell to the Kingdom of Outremer.” (Riley-Smith 203) Although this did not cause a wide range of anger in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem had produced, Louis XI of France put together a crusade that was against Egypt and lasted from 1248 to 1254, which caused the port of Aigues-Mortes to be constructed in southern France. However it turned out to be a failure, and as a result Louis XI ended up spending a majority of the crusade dwelling in the court of the crusader kingdom located in Acre. This particular crusade was the first Shepherd’s crusade of 1251.


Branching out of the seventh crusade the eighth crusade was planned by Louis XI in 1270 and began when he sailed from Aigues-Mortes in order to help what was left of the crusader states in Syria. Louis was troubled by the events that were happening in Syria, as the Baibars and Mamluks were brutally attacking the remainder of the crucial crusader states. The Baibars immediately took advantage of the opportunity to strike the cites of Venice and Genoa in order to turn them against each other, causing chaos. This had an impact on the Syrian ports located within the two cities as they were weakening. It was for this reason that Louis decided to call another crusade in the first place. This crusade ended up being centralized in the city of Tunis where Louis XI only spent two short months before passing away. Louis was later honored for his hard work and efforts concerning his involvement in the various crusades.


It was the ninth and final crusade that Edward I of England decided to take over yet another attack against the Baibars in 1271 after aiding Louis XI in the eighth crusade. It was this last crusade that was pronounced a failure and ended the crusades within the Middle East. In the later years they faced several threats from Egyptian Mamluks which created a longing to create a Franco-Mongol alliance. The Mongols were considered to show sensitivity towards Christianity, but the Frankish people came to be the most successful in offering help and planned several of the invasions that were carried out within the Middle East. In the end, the cities of Tripoli, Antioch, and Acre fell causing numerous Christians not to be able to break free from these locations. The unfortunate ones who did not manage to escape were either enslaved or murdered, and the history of the Christian rule in the Levant vanished.

The crusading movement came to an end at the end of the thirteenth century, and can be accounted as a failure based upon what they were trying to accomplish. It was after nearly two hundred years of conflict that control of the Holy Land still remained in the hands of the Muslims, but this does not mean that the crusades did not help in some areas. An example of this would be during the first crusade where the crusaders managed to conquer Syria in order to track the Turks and their journey to Constantinople. However despite this benefit, the crusades managed to do more harm than good in achieving their goal, and decided to stop the fighting, causing the crusades come to an end as the consequence. Their ultimate conclusion was that Jerusalem could be best taken over through the way the apostle Paul had done it “by love, by prayers, and by the shedding of tears.”

Nicholson, Helen J. The Crusades. Greenwood Press: United States, 2004.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A History. British Library Publishers: New York, 2005.

The Fourth Crusade

The fourth crusade lasted from 1202 through 1204, with the original intent being to overcome the Muslims who had power over Jerusalem. The crusaders were attentively planning to accomplish this through attacking them throughout Egypt. However, they chose to fight according to a different plan, deciding to invade within Western Europe, with the primary focus being on the city of Constantinople, which was the Byzantine Empire’s capital city. This includes various sieges on the city, leading up to the final capture of the major town itself. It is this that provides the primary focal point of the fourth crusade, and one of the concluding acts in the Great Schism that was between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

It was after the disappointment that the third crusade had that caused the concern for having another crusade in Europe had diminished, as they did not want to carry on another fight against the Muslims. It was during this time that Jerusalem was under the influence of the Ayyubid dynasty of Sunni Muslims, who had control over both Egypt and Syria. With knowledge of this, the majority of the crusaders departed from Venice in October of 1202, all of whom had their origins from various European cities. “Other notable groups came from the Holy Roman Empire, including men under Bishop Martin of Paris and Bishop Conrad of Halberstadt, together in alliance with the Venetian soldiers and sailors led by the doge Enrico Dandolo.”(Queller 193)The purpose of the crusade was to aim directly for the center of the Muslim world, Cairo. The crusaders were now ready to sail on June 24, 1202.

The Latin’s that were involved in the First, Second, and Third Crusade had gone from stresses to completely antagonistic in Constantinople on their journey to the Holy Land. This was opposite to how the Greeks approached the situation as their armies had deserted the Crusaders in some instances and participated in a diplomacy with their enemies. Many of Venetian merchants and other Latins were also attacked during the massacre of the Latins in Constantinople in 1182, which involved the method of deportation to be utilized. “However, the Byzantine prince's proposal involved his restoration to the throne, which Count Boniface agreed to. Alexius IV returned with the Marquess to rejoin the fleet at Corfu after it had sailed from Zara. The rest of the Crusade's leaders eventually accepted the plan as reliable.” (Phillips 204) There were several leaders of this same rank who did not want to take part in this proposal and many disregarded the idea.

It was on April 12, 1204, the weather conditions were finally in support of the Crusaders. A powerful wind that came from the north aided the Venetian ships neat the wall, and a short battle took place to seige Constantinople. It was after this fight that about seventy crusaders succeeded in making their way into the city. Many of them chose to make holes in the walls, which were helpful in causing a small number of knights to make their way through. Another thing that the Venetians were victorious in doing was traveling from the sea, and climbing up the nearby walls, even though they encountered very bloody fighting with the Varangians. It was after a long period of hard fighting that the crusaders finally captured the Blachernae section of the city, which was located in the northwest. They had a relatively easy time taking over the rest of the city, as after they overcame this milestone, a strong and successful foundation had been established for conquering. Despite causing extensive damage from defensive fires that they started in order to defend themselves, they managed to take over the city of Constantinople on this faithful day.

In conclusion, a majority of the crusaders never completed their journey to the Holy Land, causing them to leave a legacy of a profound betrayal by the Latin’s. The Latin Empire also faced many problems after this crusade which included having problems with both the Seljuk and Bulgarian Empires. This also sparked the Greek and Latin states fighting against each other, which incorporated many major officials such as Alexius III to be captured and even executed. It was because of this that there were many attempts to start other crusades that did not ultimately end up happening. However, the conflict did not end here, as the aggression and tension continued, eventually leading to the fifth crusade and beyond.

Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. Random House Publishers: United States, 2005.

Queller, Thomas F. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople. University of Pennsylvania Press: United States, 1997.

The Third Crusade

The third crusade, which lasted from 1189 through 1192, more formally known as
the King’s Crusade, was an effort made by the European chief officials to
triumph over the Holy Land once again from Saladin. It was this expedition that
consisted of the unifying of the Muslims, defeats made by Saladin, and the
collapse of Jerusalem. It was through these things that organization was
displayed as the third crusade began to unfold.

It was after the practical failure of the second crusade, that Nur al Din, who
was part of the Turkish Zengid dynasty, who ruled over the empire known as the
Syrian province. In addition to him having power over this area, he also had
power over Damascus. In order to provide unification for the Muslims, he focused
on the Fatmid dynasty who were from Egypt. He decided to call upon his most
trusted commander, Shiruk to carry out a military journey to the Nile, with his
nephew Saladin. At the beginning of this endeavor, the soldiers came to Cairo,
were they camped while they requested assistance from the king of Jerusalem. As
a result, they received help from an army sent to them through the king
granting their appeal.

The first major attack with this newly formed army was on Antioch, which caused
the execution of many Christian forces, and the taking over of several Crusaders
leaders. The primary one who was captured was the prince of Antioch himself-
Bohemond II. It was after this gruesome event that Nur al Din decided to send
the scalps of the Christians he had taken back to Egypt so that they might be
displayed in honor and pride for the actions that he had committed, claiming
himself as victorious, as he now had control over all of Egypt and Syria.

In addition to Nur al Din’s successes, Saladin had several as well. "His uncle,
Shirkuh had now taken the position of vizier of Egypt, but after only two weeks
of ruling, he died suddenly in 1169, leaving his position to his nephew Saladin."(Reston 89)
In addition to his uncle dying, Nur al Din also passed away in 1174, leaving his
own kingdom to his son As-Salih, who was only eleven years old. It was As-Salih
who made the decision that Saladin was the only man who was wise enough to imply
the concept of jihad against the many crusaders. He experienced many successes,
which included becoming sultan of both Syria and Egypt, in addition to being the
initiator of the Ayyubid Empire.

After the success experienced, the fall of Jerusalem was quick to proceed,
wherein it was Saladin’s chance to stand up against this very kingdom that he
was opposed to. The fight consisted of uniting the Muslims and meeting the
Christians at a lake close to Galilee. “It ended in the route of their army and
the capture of their king. Even the Holy Cross, which they had carried in the
midst of the fight, became spoil of the conqueror.”(Crompton 57) The Crusader army was
crushed during the battle, but at the end of that very year, Saladin had taken
both Acre and Jerusalem which was the reason for the city’s collapse, the main focal point and ultimately the end of the third crusade.

Crompton, Samuel W. The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted vs. Saladin. Chelsea House Publishers: United States, 2004.

Reston, James. Warriors of God: Ruchard the Lionhearted and Saladin in the Third Crusade. Random House Publishers: United States, 2001.

The Second Crusade

The second crusade was yet another crucial crusade which was initiated from
Europe, and lasted from 1147 to 1149. It was officially announced by Pope Eugene
II, and was the very first crusade to be led by kings such as Louis VII of
France and Conrad II from Germany. Also, this embarkment was originally arranged
in 1145, in reply to the fall of the County of Edessa during the previous year
from a people group known as the Zengi, which was the very cause of this
particular crusade. It was this county of Edessa that had been previously discovered
during the first crusade and in addition, there were many important factors to the
second crusade which included the major battle between the Germans and French,
the journey to Jerusalem, and the siege of Damascus.

The course chosen by the Germans to take under Conrad II was that they would
confront the French at Constantinople. However, upon the Germans arrival, Conrad
II encounter his enemy Geza II of Hungary, but he permitted them to make their
way through without penalty. "While Conrad the II’s confidence had been shaken, it
was soon reinforced when 20,000 more German soldiers arrived, strengthening the
forces."(Phillips 87) They had finally arrived at Constantinople on September 10, where the
correspondence between them and the French became a conflict, and caused the
Germans to take an alternate route to Asia Minor. While they avoided the French,
they ended up fighting the Turks Iconium at the battle of Dorylaeum. The Germans
ended up losing, and even Conrad II himself was wounded.

A key site that was involved in the second crusade was a significant journey to Jerusalem. This involved Louis VII, who arrived in Antioch on March 19. He was
expecting several important officials to help in defending them against the
Turks, and to also join them in the quest of fighting against the major Muslim
city of Aleppo. This location was very crucial because it was the entryway to
Edessa, however Louis VII’s response was that he would not partake in the
combat, as he wanted to continue his voyage to Jerusalem, due to the fact that his was because he wanted his primary concentration to be on the military facets of this crusade. It was after he made this decision that he found out that Conrad’s troops, in addition to several others had already arrived in Jerusalem, and requested that he joing them. He arrived with his troops, when suddenly King Baldwin II decided that he wanted the leaders and their troops to switch their focus and express a siege towards Damascus.

Upon their arrival in Damascus, the troops decided to strike from the west
where there were many orchards to provide nourishment for the soldiers. They
made their way to the location within Damascus known as Daraiya on July 23. It
was the next day that the Muslims were prepared to fight against them and attack
through the orchards that provided subtle coverings. "They managed to push
Conrad’s troops back from the walls were they currently were, and into the
orchards, were they were susceptible to ambush."(Nicolle 54) It was after this that they readily
moved to the eastern part of the city, which was very protected . The nearby
crusader lords had refused to carry on this battle, and made the decision to
retreat to Jerusalem on July 28, as Turkish archers were continually harassing
them.

In the end, the Second Crusade had both good and bad consequences that
resulted. Within the east, the outcome was very bleak as the Christians were
left devastated. The Second Crusade also had grim effects on the Holy Land, as
Damascus was no longer the foundational center of the reliable crusader kingdom.
In contrast, Jerusalem was able to make successful battles against Egypt that
caused them to dominate Cairo in the 1160’s, and this was made possible through a
strong alliance with the Byzantines under their main leader King Amalric I.
However, this success did not last very long as the majority of these expeditions
ended in failure. The main implication of this was that this alliance official
came to an end when Manuel I emperor of the Byzantines died in 1180, thus
resulting in Jerusalem being taken over by Saladin, which is the primary focus of
the approaching Third Crusade.

Nicolle, David. The Second Crusade 1148: Disaster Outside Damascus. New York: Osprey Publishing, 2009.

Phillips, Jonathan. The Second Crusade: Scope and Consequences. NewYork: Manchester University Press, 2001.